OUR  OLD  WORLD 
BACKGROUND 


OUR    OLD   WORLD    BACKGROUND 


OUR  OLD  WORLD 
BACKGROUND 


BY 

CHARLES   A.    BEARD 

AND 

WILLIAM    C.    BAGLEY 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1922 

All  rights  reserved 


PRINTED    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


fll* 


COPYRIGHT,  1922, 
BY   THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  June,  1922. 


NortoooU 

Set  up  and  electrotyped  by  J.  S.  Gushing  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

THIS  volume  completes  a  series  of  books  for  the 
grade  schools.  The  companion  works  are  A  First 
Book  in  American  History  and  The  History  of  the  Amer- 
ican People.  Although  each  volume  is  independent  in 
itself,  a  unity  of  purpose  knits  them  into  one  organic 
whole.  We  have  kept  always  before  us  the  problem 
of  giving  our  boys  and  girls  the  best  possible  civic  and 
cultural  equipment,  and  have  endeavored  to  contrib- 
ute something  to  the  solution  of  that  problem.  On 
this  point  we  need  not  add  anything  to  what  we  have 
said  in  the  prefaces  to  the  companion  volumes. 

As  to  this  particular  work,  the  argument  for  the  form 
and  subject  matter  is  to  be  found  in  the  first  chapter. 
We  have  placed  it  there  because  we  believe  that  the 
pupils  should  know  why  they  are  called  upon  to  take  up 
any  line  of  historical  study. 

The  importance  of  European  history  for  the  under- 
standing of  America  has  long  been  recognized  by  our 
colleges  and  high  schools.  The  increase  in  the  number 
of  courses  and  books  on  that  subject  bears  witness  to 
the  fact.  Nevertheless,  few  attempts  have  yet  been 
made  to  carry  the  idea  into  our  grade  schools.  It  is 
true  that  we  have  several  books  bearing  some  such  title 

V 

504903 


PREFACE 


.3sV;l  'pAckgr.ound  of  American  History,"  but  all  of 
them  close  European  history  virtually  with  the  foun- 
dation of  the  American  colonies. 

How  inadequate  is  such  a  treatment  of  our  past  ! 
In  order  to  appreciate  this  inadequacy  one  has  only  to 
consider  the  streams  of  immigration  that  have  flowed 
into  the  United  States  from  all  parts  of  Europe  since 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  influence  of  European 
literature,  especially  English,  upon  our  thought,  the 
thousand  and  one  relations  of  the  United  States  to 
Europe  since  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the  par- 
ticipation of  America  in  every  general  European  war 
since  1701,  and  the  commanding  position  won  by  our 
country  in  Europe  and  "the  Orient  during  our  own 
time.  To  cut  off  European  history  at  the  opening  of 
the  seventeenth  century  is  to  deprive  the  great  mass 
of  our  young  citizens  of  all  formal  instruction  in  the 
modern  world  culture.  Even  the  most  superficial  sur- 
vey of  the  situation  to-day  shows  how  serious  has  been 
our  neglect  of  duty  in  this  respect. 

In  defense,  of  course,  there  may  be  urged  the  extreme 
difficulty  of  presenting  the  subject  of  world  history  to 
grade  school  pupils.  It  is  far  from  our  thought  to  min- 
imize that  difficulty.  It  has  weighed  heavily  upon  our 
minds  all  through  the  preparation  of  this  text.  Im- 
pressed, however,  by  the  urgent  necessity  of  the  oc- 
casion, we  have  labored  hard  to  surmount  it.  As  in 
our  other  books,  we  have  sought  to  grasp  the  striking 
and  essential  ideas  and  movements  of  mankind,  and 


PREFACE  vii 

to  present  them  in  clear  and  simple  form.  W<;  be- 
lieve that  no  pupils  can  go  carefully  through  these  pages 
without  making  important  additions  to  their  stock  of 
ideas  and  without  enlarging  the  horizon  of  their  thought. 
We  believe  that  they  will  all  have  a  firmer  grasp  upon 
the  history  of  our  own  country  and  a  better  understand- 
ing of  their  coming  duties  as  citizens  of  this  republic. 

We  confess  also  to  having  more  than  a  practical  pur- 
pose in  mind.  The  charge  is  often  made  that  Ameri- 
cans are  provincial  in  their  outlook.  We  shall  not  reply 
by  saying  that,  in  our  opinion,  Europeans  are  still 
more  provincial,  or  by  saying  that  the  American  people 
know  far  more  about  world  history  than  the  mass  of 
Europeans  know  about  the  history  of  the  other  con- 
tinents. Whatever  may  be  the  merits  in  this  old  dis- 
pute, we  have  deliberately  aimed  at  helping  to  make 
Americans  less  provincial  by  introducing  them  early 
to  two  fundamental  ideas  :  the  unity  of  all  history,  and 
the  importance  of  enriching  our  national  life  by  the 
study  of  the  best  in  all  the  past  and  in  all  nations. 

We  are  not  attempting,  therefore,  to  add  another 
course  of  history  to  the  grade  school  curriculum,  or 
merely  to  enlarge  one  already  given.  We  are  inviting 
the  cooperation  of  teachers  in  the  pressing  task  of  pre- 
paring the  American  people,  in  spirit  and  in  understand- 
ing, for  the  imposing  world  destiny  to  which  they  are 
called  by  their  enterprise,  their  wealth,  and  their  power. 
Textbooks  alone  can  do  little.  They  are  at  best  frail 
instruments.  The  teachers  who  grasp  the  idea  and 


/.;  :, ^  PREFACE 

fr;in£p  the  living  word  are  the  masters  of 
the  field.  If  our  book  only  aids  them  in  their  work 
of  carrying  American  culture  to  new  heights,  our  re- 
ward will  be  beyond  measure.  When  they  remember 
with  Maeterlinck  that  "  there  are  no  dead,"  let  them 
remember  also  that  all  of  us  shall  live  forever.  All  the 
future  is  in  the  hands  of  the  present. 

C.  A.  B. 

W.  C.  B. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PACK 

I.     AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD  :    ANCIENT  AND  MODERN       .         i 

America's  Mixed  Inheritance.  The  Changing  Back- 
ground of  American  History.  The  Foreground  of  His- 
tory —  America  to  the  Front.  Conclusions. 

II.    THE  EARLY  AGES  OF  MANKIND 26 

The  Prehistoric  Ages  —  from  Stone  to  Metals.  Life 
among  Primitive  Peoples.  The  Beginnings  of  Human 
Society. 

III.  THE  GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY        ....      42 

The  Nations  of  the  Orient.  Greece  and  Rome.  Social 
Classes  in  the  Ancient  World.  The  Great  Cities  of  An- 
tiquity. 

IV.  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  NATIONS       ...      70 

The  Practical  Arts.  Architecture  and  Art.  Literature 
and  Education.  Ancient  Religions  and  Christianity. 

V.    THE  MIDDLE  AGES:    FEUDALISM  AND  THE  CHURCH        .     112 
Feudalism.     The  Medieval  Church. 

VI.    THE  ARTS  AND  TOWN  LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES         .     137 

Architecture,  Art,  and  Learning.  Town  Life  in  the 
Middle  Ages. 

VII.    THE  RISE  OF  NATIONS 161 

The  Rise  and  Growth  of  France.  The  Rise  of  Spain. 
The  Making  of  the  English  Nation. 

VIII.    THE  GROWTH  OF  WORLD  COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION     186 

The  Growth  of  Trade  from  Early  Times.  European 
Attention  Fixed  upon  the  East.  The  Service  of  Science 
and  Learning.  Navigators,  Explorers,  and  Conquerors. 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

IX.    THE  PROTESTANT  REFORMATION 213 

The  Protestant  Reformation  in  Germany.     The  Protes- 
tant   Reformation   in  England.      Results   of  the    Protes- 
tant Revolt. 
X.     THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  REVOLUTION  IN  ENGLAND  .         .238 

The  Old  Political  and  Social  Classes  in  England.     A 
Century  of  Revolution.     The  Results  of  the  Revolutions. 
XI.    THE  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS     .        .        .        .261 

The  Commercial  Triumph  of  England.  The  Conflict 
between  England  and  France  in  India  and  North  America. 
The  Balance  of  Power  in  Europe. 

XII.     THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 2$o 

The  Old  Order  in  France.  The  People  Revolt.  The 
Napoleonic  Wars. 

XIII.  THE  AGE  OF  STEAM  AND  MACHINERY     .        .        .        .321 

Steam  Power.  The  Invention  of  Machinery.  The 
Meaning  of  the  Industrial  Revolution. 

XIV.  NATIONALISM  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  .        .        -354 

Unification  of  Germany  and  Italy.  Nationalism  in 
Eastern  Europe. 

XV.    THE  GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY 378 

Democracy  in  France.    Democracy  in  England.    Democ- 
racy in  Germany.     Democracy  in  Southeastern  Europe. 
Rise  of  Democracy  in  Russia.     Democracy  in  the  Orient. 
Democracy  and  Civil  Liberty. 
XVI.    THE  IMPERIAL  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS     .        .     407 

Europe  in  the  Orient.  European  Occupation  of  Africa. 
European  Interest  in  Latin  America.  The  World  War  — 
1914-1918. 

XVII.     EUROPE  IN  OUR  OWN  TIME 444 

The   Domestic  Affairs  of  th.?   Nations.     International 
Relations. 
XVIII.    THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MODERN  AGE      .        .        .        .    467 

Modern  Knowledge.  The  Idea  of  Progress  and  Reform. 
Literature  and  Art.  The  Unity  of  the  Modern  World. 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

PAGE 

The  World,  to  Illustrate  Chapter  I  . 24 

Ancient  Oriental  Empires 46 

Ancient  Greece 48 

The  Roman  Empire  about  400  A.D. 53 

Europe  about  1200  A.D.  (in  colors)             ....        facing  116 

Trading  Centers  in  the  Middle  Ages 152 

The  Empire  of  Charlemagne 164 

France  in  the  Fifteenth  Century -.  167 

Egbert's  Kingdom 173 

England  under  William  the  Conqueror 175 

The  Age  of  Discovery 203 

European  Settlements  in  America 226 

Era  of  the  Reformation -237 

Chief  European  Rivals 263 

Europeans  in  the  Orient .         .  271 

British  and  French  Rivals  in  North  America 274 

Western  Europe  in  the  Seventeenth  Century 277 

Europe  about  1810  .         .         .         . 312 

European  Railways 347 

Europe  in  1815 357 

Nationalities  in  Austria-Hungary 371 

Central  Europe  in  1871 391 

Japan  and  China 400 

Africa 415 

The  Caribbean  Region      . 418 

South  America 421 

Europe  after  the  World  War  (in  colors)  ,                                    facing  436 


OUR    OLD    WORLD 
BACKGROUND 


CHAPTER   I 

AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD:  ANCIENT  AND 
MODERN 

THERE  is  no  scene  in  all  American  history,  there  is  no 
great  name  upon  our  roll  of  heroes,  there  is  no  book 
upon  our  shelves  that  does  not  awaken  memories  of 
Europe. 

Is  it  Washington  triumphant  over  the  British  army 
at  Yorktown  ?  Lo !  we  behold  the  French  general, 
Lafayette,  at  his  side.  We  know  that  the  French 
fleet  is  riding  in  the  harbor  and  we  remember  that 
our  minister,  Benjamin  Franklin,  has  been  pleading 
America's  cause  at  the  court  of  the  French  king. 

Is   it   a   humbler   scene ;    for  example,    a   May-day 
picnic  in   Central   Park   in   New  York   City  ?     There 
we    see    children    of    English,    Irish,    Italian,    Jewish, 
German,  Scandinavian,   and  other  national  origins  - 
Americans  all --playing  about  a  high  stone  shaft,  an 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


Egyptian    obelisk,    more    than    three   thousand   years 
old,  brought  all  the  way  across  the  sea  to  adorn  a  city's 

playground  ! 

Is  it  a  home  scene  with  the 
family  gathered  around  the 
lamp  in  the  evening  ?  The 
books  and  magazines  on  the 
table  may  be  in  any  one  of  a 
dozen  languages  and  the  news 
in  the  paper  is  gathered  from 
the  corners  of  the  earth.  The 
conversation  may  be  about 
memories  of  the  countries  in 
the  Old  World  from  which 
the  parents  or  grandparents 
came,  or  it  may  be  about  the 
latest  events  in  London,  Rome, 
Moscow,  or  Berlin. 

Is  it  a  mothers'  meeting  in  a 
modern  city  school  to  discuss 
with  the  teacher  the  education 
of  their  children  ?  Many  races 
are  certain  to  be  represented 
and  the  customs  of  many  lands 
are  sure  to  be  compared. 

Search  high  and  low,  far  and 

wide,  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  America,  and 
you  will  see  the  truth  in  the  saying :  "  The  history  of 
America  is  the  history  of  Europe  in  the  New  World." 


Courtesy    of   Metropolitan    Museum    of 
Art,  New  York 

THE  CENTRAL  PARK  OBELISK  IN 
ITS  EGYPTIAN  HOME 


AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD 


Take  the  character  of  a  great  American,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  as  another  illustration.  His  parents  were  of 
English  origin,  his  tongue  was  English,  and  his  early 
religious  training  was 
that  of  a  Christian 
denomination  which 
was  founded  in  Eng- 
land. 

Consider  his  edu- 
cation. As  a  farmer's 
boy,  he  was  accus- 
tomed, on  winter 
nights,  to  lie  upon 
the  floor  before  the 
hearth  and  pore  over 
his  books  in  the  light 
of  the  blazing  fire. 
In  those  quiet  hours 
he  was,  without 
knowing  it,  preparing 
himself  to  teach  and 
lead  this  nation  in  a 
time  of  great  trouble.  In  the  little  library  from  which 
he  gathered  wisdom  and  understanding,  were  eight 
books.  Three  of  them  were  by  American  writers. 

Five  of  them  were  from  other  lands.  First  among 
these  was  the  Bible,  one  of  the  oldest  books  of  the 
world.  For  hundreds  and  hundreds  of  years,  the 
Bible  had  been  read  in  many  languages  and  had  in- 


A  MONUMENT  TO  LINCOLN  IN  LONDON 


4  OUR   OLD   WORLD   BACKGROUND 

fluenced  the  lives  of  countless  millions  of  people. 
Another  one  of  Lincoln's  books  was  Aesop's  Fables, 
a  collection  of  stories  said  to  have  been  made  by  a 
Greek  writer  five  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of 
Christ.  The  stories  themselves  were  still  older.  Some 
of  them  have  even  been  traced  back  to  ancient  Egypt. 
Lincoln  also  had  The  Arabian  Nights,  "  a  thousand  and 
one  "  marvelous  tales  that  had  come  down  from  the 
earliest  days  of  Persia,  Arabia,  and  India.  His  other 
books  were  by  English  writers.  One  was  Pilgrim** 
Progress,  by  the  famous  preacher,  John  Bunyan,  who 
based  it  all  upon  the  Bible.  The  other  was  Robinson 
Crusoe,  written  in  1719  by  Daniel  Defoe. 

Lincoln  was  a  true  American ;  but  who  can  say 
from  what  ancient  times  and  distant  lands  came  the 
ideas  that  guided  him  and  the  hopes  that  inspired  him  ? 
America  gave  him  opportunity ;  the  Old  World  gave 
him  an  inheritance  so  great  that  the  human  mind  can 
scarcely  measure  it.  Of  nearly  all  Americans,  as  of 
Lincoln,  it  may  be  said  :  "  The  Old  World  is  their 
motherland  and  teacher." 

AMERICA'S  MIXED  INHERITANCE 

The  People.  From  the  very  beginning  of  American 
history,  many  races  have  played  a  part.  With  the  pass- 
ing years,  the  number  of  different  peoples  coming  to 
our  shores  has  increased.  John  Cabot,  whose  voyage 
gave  the  king  of  England  a  claim  to  North  America, 


AMERICA  AND  THE   WORLD 


was  an  Italian  (A  First  Book  in  American  History, 
pp.  26-29).  One  °f  tne  American  colonies,  New  Nether- 
land  (New  York),  was  founded  by  the  Dutch,  and 
another,  Delaware,  by  the  Swedes.  Even  in  those 


(g>  Keystone,  View  Co..  Inc. 
THE  MAYFLOWER 

colonies  founded  by  the  English,  there  were  also  to  be 
found  Welsh,  Germans,  Irish,  Scotch,  French,  and 
Jews.  Although  English  became  the  language  of  the 
land,  the  nation  was  not  to  be  wholly  English  in  blood. 
In  time,  the  descendants  of  the  original  English  were 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


outnumbered  by  other  races.  Moreover,  the  English 
blood  itself  had  become  mixed  with  that  of  many 
nationalities.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  certainly  an  Amer- 
ican of  the  first  rank,  boasted  that  among  his  ancestors 
were  Dutch,  English,  Scotch,  Irish,  and  Germans. 
Our  Language.  Although  English  is  the  language 

of  the  American  people,  it  is 
made  up  of  and  mixed  with 
words  from  many  tongues, 
especially  Greek,  Latin,  and 
French.  Of  Latin  origin  are 
nearly  all  our  words  about 
government,  such  as  presi- 
dent^ senate,  and  constitution. 
From  the  Greek  come  a  great 
number  of  terms  used  in  the 
schools,  such  as  geography, 
and  physiology.  Most  of 
our  scientific  words  are  of 
Greek  or  Latin  origin;  To 
telegraph,  for  instance,  means 
in  Greek  simply  "to  write  from  a  distance."  Some 
people  say  that  it  is  better  to  use  short  and  simple 
words  of  English  origin.  Doubtless  this  is  wise 
wherever  possible,  but  even  by  the  greatest  effort  one 
can  hardly  avoid  using  words  taken  from  other  lan- 
guages. Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address  shows  how  many 
Latin  words  crept  into  the  language  of  a  man  who  was 
accustomed  to  use  the  purest  English. 


From  cm  old  print 
}      CICERO,  THE  ROMAN  ORATOR 


AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD  7 

Our  Government.  We  have  learned  much  from 
Europe,  especially  England,  about  how  to  govern 
ourselves.  When  the  English  founded  the  thirteen  col- 
onies in  America,  they  provided  that  each  one  should 
have  a  legislature  to  make  the  laws,  a  governor  to 
enforce  them,  and  judges  to  explain  and  apply  them. 
When  the  colonies  became  independent  states,  they 
kept  these  three  branches  of  government.  This  is 
the  origin  of  our  state  government  of  to-day.  Changes 
have  been  made,  of  course,  but  the  important  parts 
remain.  The  idea  of  government  by  elected  officers, 
instead  of  kings  alone,  came  to  America  from  England. 

Our  federal  government,  or  union  of  the  states, 
however,  was  created  by  the  Americans  themselves. 
It  was  planned  by  a  convention  of  citizens  who  met  at 
Philadelphia  in  1787  (First  Book,  pp.  149-154).  Among 
them  were  George  Washington,  James  Madison,  and 
Alexander  Hamilton. 

In  drawing  up  the  plan  of  the  federal  government, 
these  men  thought  a  great  deal  about  governments 
of  other  countries  and  other  times.  James  Madison, 
for  example,  studied. carefully  the  history  of  the  ancient 
world,  as  well  as  of  England,  before  he  even  went  to 
the  convention.  His  notebooks  have  been  kept  and 
can  be  read  to-day.  Other  delegates  were  familiar 
with  the  history  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  England. 
Again  and  again  they  spoke  of  the  governments  of 
these  countries  and  tried  to  profit  from  the  lessons  of 
olden  times. 


8  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

For  example,  one  member  of  the  convention  said 
that  at  the  head  of  the  American  government  there 
should  be  three  officials,  instead  of  one  President.  At 
once  another  member  replied  :  "  One  man  will  be  more 
responsible  than  three.  Three  will  contend  among 
themselves  until  one  becomes  the  master."  He  pointed 
out  how  this  very  thing  had  happened  in  ancient  Rome 
when  that  country  was  governed  by  three  men  called 
a  triumvirate.  On  other  important  points  the  lessons 
of  Greece  were  cited.  As  the  members  of  the  conven- 
tion were  nearly  all  of  English  descent,  they  naturally 
spoke  often  of  things  to  be  learned  from  the  history 
of  England. 

Our  Civilization.  Religion.  The  Christian  religion, 
which  is  the  faith  of  most  of  the  American  people, 
arose  in  Palestine  on  the  distant  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  two  thousand  years  ago.  Of  the  many 
branches  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  United  States, 
all  except  a  few  were  founded  in  the  Old  World. 
The  Jewish  religion  also  came  from  Palestine. 

Books.  Of  the  books  studied  in  our  schools  or  read 
in  our  homes,  very  many  are  of  foreign  origin.  The 
English  poet,  Shakespeare,  and  the  English  novelist, 
Dickens,  are  in  most  private  libraries.  In  our  high 
schools,  pupils  study  the  Latin  language  and  learn  to 
read  the  writings  of  the  Romans,  Caesar  and  Cicero. 
American  writers  often  follow  foreign  models.  Daniel 
Webster  (First  Book,  pp.  284-288),  perhaps  our  greatest 
orator,  constantly  studied  the  speeches  of  Greek  and 


AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD 


Roman  orators.  Our  first  poets  and  novelists  imitated 
European  examples.  They  wrote  of  knights  and  ladies, 
kings  and  princes,  as  if  there  were  nothing  in  America 
to  write  about.  Very 
slowly  did  American 
writers  venture  to  choose 
American  people  and 
scenes  for  their  novels, 
poems,  and  dramas. 

Schools.  American 
schools  and  colleges,  at 
first,  were  like  those  in 
Europe.  The  first  teach- 
ers came  from  the  Old 
World.  The  first  text- 
books were  written  and 
printed  in  Europe.  It 
was  a  long  time  before 
school  children  had  ge- 
ographies, spellers,  and 
histories  printed  in  Amer- 
ica. Thomas  Jefferson,  founder  of  the  University  of 
Virginia,  got  many  of  his  ideas  of  education  from 
France. 

Science  and  Invention.  Although  Americans  have 
themselves  invented  many  wonderful  machines,  a 
great  deal  of  our  knowledge  about  such  matters 
came  from  across  the  sea.  Spinning  and  weaving 
are  even  older  than  the  oldest  nation  on  the  earth. 


A  MONUMENT  TO  SHAKESPEARE 
IN  NEW  YORK 


10  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

The  Egyptians  mapped  the  heavens  and  began  the 
science  of  astronomy.  The  compass  was  invented 
long  before  the  day  of  Christopher  Columbus.  The 
first  printing  press  was  built  almost  two  hundred  years 
before  the  English  landed  at  Jamestown.  The  steam 


Metropolitan  Museum 

AN  ANCIENT  EGYPTIAN  MAP  OF  THE  STARS 

engine,  as  a  working  machine,  came  from  England. 
Electricity  was  known  to  the  Greeks.  In  fact,  it  was 
by  using  knowledge  from  the  past  that  Americans 
were  able  to  make  astonishing  progress  and  to  give  to 
the  world  the  reaper,  the  telegraph,  and  the  tele- 
phone. If  you  will  read  the  lives  of  our  inventors 
you  will  find  that  they  began  where  other  inventors 
left  off. 

THE  CHANGING  BACKGROUND  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY 

The  Expansion  of  Europe.  In  speaking  of  our 
inheritance  from  the  Old  World,  we  must  remember 
that,  through  all  the  years  of  our  history,  Europe 
itself  has  been  changing  too.  When  Columbus  set 


AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD  II 

out  upon  his  daring  voyage,  Europeans  knew  nothing 
of  the  Western  Hemisphere  and  little  of  Asia.  They 
had  no  colonies.  Their  trade  was  mainly  among 
themselves. 

During  the  four  centuries  that  have  passed  since 
then,  Europeans  have  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  earth. 
In  some  instances,  they  have  swept  away  the  natives 
and  founded  new  states,  as  in  the  case  of  Canada 
and  Australia.  In  other  instances,  they  have  mingled 
with  the  natives  and  mixed  Old  World  ideas  with  theirs. 
This  is  what  the  Spanish  did  in  Mexico,  Central  and 
South  America,  and  many  islands  of  the  seas.  In 
still  other  places,  the  Europeans  made  themselves 
rulers  over  natives.  In  this  way,  the  British  built 
up  their  vast  empire  in  Asia  and  in  Africa.  So,  too, 
the  French,  the  Germans,  the  Belgians,  and  the  Italians 
formed  their  empires  in  Africa,  bringing  millions  of 
the  natives  under  their  flags.  Thus  it  happened  that, 
between  1492  and  our  day,  all  of  North  America  and 
South  America,  nearly  all  of  Africa,  all  of  Australia, 
and  huge  portions  of  Asia  fell  under  the  sway  of  Euro- 
peans. 

The  Awakening  of  the  Orient.  Where  the  Europeans 
have  not  conquered,  they  have  shaken  other  races 
out  of  their  old  ways  of  living.  They  have  forced 
them  or  induced  them  by  example  to  adopt  European 
ideas  of  government,  trade,  and  war.  This  is  what 
happened  in  the  case  of  China  and  Japan.  These 
countries  are  older  in  civilization  by  thousands  of 


12  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

years  than  either  England  or  France,  but  it  was  under 
the  influence  of  Europeans  and  Americans  that  they 
adopted  gunpowder,  the  steam  engine,  the  railway, 
the  factory,  and  many  ideas  of  democratic  government. 

Under  European  influence,  the  Japanese  created  a 
parliament  elected  by  voters  and  established  daily 
newspapers.  It  was  not  until  about  1855  that  Japan 
opened  her  doors  to  the  world,  but  within  fifty  years 
she  had  rapid-fire  guns,  railways,  factories,  and  vast  in- 
dustrial cities  of  her  own.  Within  fifty  years  she  defied 
one  of  the  most  powerful  nations  of  Europe,  Russia, 
and  defeated  her  on  the  field  of  battle.  Having  all  the 
inventions  of  the  West,  from  steam  engines  to  battle- 
ships, she  is  now  the  first  power  in  the  Far  East. 

During  the  same  period,  the  Chinese  cut  off  their 
queues  and  put  on  trousers.  They  threw  off  the  rule 
of  their  ancient  imperial  family  and  tried  to  found  a 
republic.  So  the  slumbering  giants  of  the  East  have 
been  stirred  from  their  long  sleep,  and  stand  alert  and 
ready  for  coming  events.  They  are  Europeanized. 

The  Trade  of  Europe.  While  conquering  by  the 
sword  and  arousing  natives  by  their  enterprise,  the 
Europeans  have  spread  their  trade  everywhere.  There 
is  not  a  nook  or  cranny  of  this  old  earth  that  they  have 
not  visited  with  their  wares.  They  trade  and  bargain 
with  the  dusky  Eskimo  of  the  frozen  North,  the 
swarthy  African  of  the  tropics,  the  wandering  Arab  of 
the  desert,  as  well  as  with  the  civilized  people  of 
every  clime. 


AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD  13 

Whether  it  is  the  port  of  Hongkong  in  distant  China, 
La  Paz  twelve  thousand  feet  high  in  the  mountains 
of  Bolivia,  or  Libreville  under  the  blazing  sky  of  Africa, 
the  Europeans  are  there  with  their  goods  to  sell.  The 
Turks  dozing  away  in  Anatolia,  the  nomad  tribes- 
men of  Persia  lolling  in  their  tents,  are  aroused  by  the 
call  of  the  European  merchant  who  cries  abroad  his 
wares  and  offers  to  buy  in  exchange.  The  ships  that 
dock  at  Liverpool,  Boulogne,  and  Hamburg  come  from 
every  country  that  borders  on  the  sea  and  every  climate 
under  the  shining  sun. 

In  addition  to  trading  with  the  peoples  of  every 
land  and  race,  the  Europeans  lend  them  money  to 
build  railways,  factories,  and  telegraph  lines.  Eng- 
land alone  has  lent  five  billion  dollars  to  Asiatics  and 
Africans.  French  bankers  have  lent  billions  to  Egyp- 
tians, Turks,  Brazilians,  Africans,  Chinese,  and  in  fact 
all  the  other  peoples  of  the  earth. 

Wherever  we  go  on  the  broad  surface  of  the  globe, 
we  meet  Europeans  and  see  the  signs  of  their  work. 
The  geography  of  Europe  remains  the  same.  The 
same  seas  wash  the  coasts  of  France  and  Spain  as  in 
the  days  of  Columbus.  But  the  civilization  of  Europe 
has  spread  all  over  the  world.  There  is  no  ocean 
that  is  not  plowed  by  European  merchant  vessels 
and  battleships.  There  is  no  port  that  they  have  not 
visited.  There  is  no  people  that  they  have  not  stirred 
to  new  thought  and  action.  The  European  background 
of  American  history  has  become  a  world  background. 


14  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

THE    FOREGROUND    OF   HISTORY  —  AMERICA    TO    THE 

FRONT 

American  Influence  on  Europe.  Great  is  the  debt 
of  Americans  to  the  old  yet  ever  changing  Europe ; 
but  we  must  not  forget  that  there  is  another  side  to 
the  story.  From  the  day  that  Captain  John  Smith 
set  foot  on  the  shores  of  Virginia  to  the  day  that  General 
John  Pershing  set  foot  on  the  shores  of  France,  there 
was  not  an  hour  in  which  European  statesmen  did 
not  have  to  reckon  with  America. 

American  Government.  The  American  example  of 
a  people  governing  themselves  without  kings  and 
nobles  was  always  before  the  people  of  Europe.  French 
soldiers,  like  Lafayette,  who  came  over  to  aid  Wash- 
ington in  the  American  Revolution  (First  Book,  pp. 
141-142),  carried  back  with  them  American  ideas 
about  government.  A  few  years  later  they  helped  to 
overthrow  the  French  king  in  the  great  French  Revolu- 
tion which  broke  out  in  1789.  The  state  constitutions 
which  the  Americans  drew  up  for  themselves  after 
1776  were  translated  into  French.  They  were  spread 
broadcast  and  read  in  every  European  country. 

Books  about  America.  Able  men  and  women  from 
Europe  visited  America  and  studied  our  ways  of 
living,  working,  and  governing.  They  wrote  books 
about  the  things  they  saw,  and  European  people  read 
these  accounts.  In  1744  Peter  Kalm,  a  German, 
published  the  story  of  his  travels  in  America  for  the 


AMERICA  AND  THE  WORLD 


1 6  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

benefit  of  the  German  people.  In  1786  a  French  noble- 
man published  for  his  countrymen  an  interesting 
book  about  the  new  American  republic.  Years  after- 
wards, in  1835,  a  still  abler  Frenchman,  Alexis  de 
Tocqueville,  issued  a  work,  entitled  Democracy  in 
America,  which  set  all  Europe  thinking.  A  little  later 
a  thoughtful  Englishwoman,  Harriet  Martineau,  printed 
a  volume  on  America  for  her  fellow  citizens  to  read. 
If  we  should  give  here  a  list  of  important  European 
books  about  America  it  would  fill  ten  or  fifteen  pages 
of  this  little  volume. 

Influence  of  Immigrants.  It  was  not  only  the 
writers  who  carried  back  to  the  Old  World  American 
ideas.  Thousands  of  immigrants  from  all  parts  of 
Europe,  after  living  here  for  a  while,  returned  home 
to  visit  or  to  stay.  They  told  their  neighbors  how 
people  lived  and  worked  in  America.  The  millions 
who  did  not  go  back  to  their  native  lands  wrote  letters 
to  their  families  and  friends  across  the  sea.  In  this 
way  they  put  American  ideas  into  European  heads. 
There  are  no  scales  in  which  to  weigh  the  influence 
of  all  these  things  on  European  life ;  but  we  know  that 
Europe  became  a  different  Europe  on  account  of 
America. 

American  Trade  with  the  World.  Since  the  early 
days  of  American  history  the  well-being  and  prosperity 
of  millions  in  Europe  have  depended  upon  the  produce 
drawn  from  American  fields  and  plantations.  Owing 
to  wheat  and  corn  from  America,  Europeans  had 


AMERICA    AND    THE    WORLD  17 

more  bread  to  eat.  The  vast  cotton  spinning  and 
weaving  industry  of  England,  employing  millions  of 
people,  was  for  a  long  time  almost  entirely  supplied 
with  raw  cotton  from  our  Southern  states.  Whenever 
a  war  stopped  the  flow  of  raw  materials  to  Europe, 
the"  people  of  Europe  suffered,  as  well  as  American 
farmers  and  planters. 

Within  recent  times,  Americans  have  been  sending 
large  quantities  of  manufactured  goods  abroad.  There 
are  few  distant  countries  that  do  not  use  our  reapers, 
sewing  machines,  and  typewriters.  Our  merchants  are 
to  be  found  in  all  the  great  cities  of  the  world  advertis- 
ing and  selling  manufactured  goods.  European  busi- 
ness men  find  them  shrewd  and  energetic  in  the  search 
for  customers. 

The  Growth  of  American  Territory.  In  addition  to 
spreading  their  trade  far  and  wide  throughout  the 
world,  Americans  have  also  carried  their  flag  to  distant 
lands.  Alaska  came  under  our  control  in  1867.  The 
United  States  now  holds  Porto  Rico  and  the  Virgin 
Islands  in  the  West  Indies.  It  owns  the  canal  strip, 
or  zone,  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Cuba,  Haiti, 
Santo  Domingo,  and  Nicaragua  are  under  American 
protection. 

The  American  flag  has  been  planted  in  the  Pacific. 
It  waves  over  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  over  a  part  of 
the  Samoan  group,  over  Guam,  and  over  several  other 
small  islands.  Since  1898  it  has  floated  over  the 
Philippine  Islands  near  China  and  Japan.  So  the 


1 8  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

United  States  has  territory  in  the  same  regions  as  the 
English,  French,  and  Dutch.  Anything  important  that 
happens  in  Asia  becomes  a  matter  of  interest  to  America. 
The  United  States  has  indeed  become  a  "  world  power." 

America  in  the  Wars  of  the  Old  World.  Europe 
has  had  many  wars  in  which  nearly  all  the  great  nations 
have  taken  part.  During  the  past  two  hundred  years 
there  has  not  been  one  of  these  "  general  "  wars  in 
which  America  has  not  joined  in  one  way  or  another. 

In  colonial  times,  when  England  and  France  were 
struggling  for  the  mastery  in  North  America  (First 
Book,  pp.  83-101),  the  American  colonies  were  drawn 
into  the  quarrel. 

Even  after  winning  their  independence,  Americans 
could  not  keep  out  of  European  conflicts.  The  long 
war  from  1793  to  1815,  in  which  France  and  England 
took  the  lead,  interfered  with  American  trade.  Ameri- 
can citizens  took  sides  and  thus  the  quarrel  in  Europe 
stirred  up  a  quarrel  here  (First  Book,  pp.  154-160). 
French  and  English  warships  captured  our  goods  and 
ships  at  sea.  The  English  stopped  and  searched  our 
vessels  for  English-born  sailors.  If  they  found  any, 
they  took  them  off.  For  a  long  time  our  government 
did  not  know  what  to  do.  Finally,  in  1812,  it  declared 
war  upon  England  (First  Book,  pp.  181-194). 

A  hundred  years  later,  when  Europe  was  at  war 
again,  the  United  States  was  deeply  stirred  by  the 
contest.  At  length,  it  threw  its  sword  into  the  scale, 
helping  to  put  an  end  to  the  German  empire  (First 


AMERICA    AND    THE    WORLD  19 

Book,  pp.  439-449).  In  other  parts  of  the  world  the 
power  of  American  armies  had  already  been  felt.  Even 
an  uprising  in  distant  China,  in  1900,  led  our  govern- 
ment to  join  with  the  governments  of  Europe  in  putting 
down  a  native  rebellion  (First  Book,  pp.  380-384). 
So  American  ideas,  American  trade,  and  American 
arms  are  powerful  factors  in  the  affairs  of  the  world. 

American  Relations  with  European  Countries.  In 
all  the  troublous  times  of  our  history,  Americans 
have  looked  to  Europe  for  counsel  and  aid.  Within 
two  years  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
United  States  made  an  alliance  with  France  (First 
Book,  pp.  136-143).  It  even  drew  Holland  and  Spain, 
as  well,  into  the  contest  against  King  George  III. 

When  the  Civil  War  burst  upon  our  country, 
President  Lincoln  and  President  Davis  both  turned 
at  once  to  the  countries  of  Europe  to  see  which  side 
they  would  favor.  The  South  even  hoped  that  England 
and  France  would  aid  it  against  the  North.  Long 
afterward,  in  1899  and  1907,  the  Czar  of  Russia, 
hoping  to  put  an  end  to  all  war,  called  conferences  at 
The  Hague.  The  United  States  sent  able  delegates 
who  played  a  leading  part  in  those  debates.  In. our 
time,  after  the  defeat  of  Germany  in  1918,  President 
Wilson  went  to  Paris  to  speak  for  our  government  in 
the  conference  that  sought  to  settle  the  disputes  between 
nations. 

The  Climax  in  American  Power.  From  the  World 
War,  America  emerged  the  richest  and  most  powerful 


20  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

nation  on  the  earth.  Once  it  borrowed  money  and 
bought  its  manufactured  goods  in  Europe.  Now  Eng- 
land, France,  Russia,  and  Italy  owe  the  United  States 
billions  of  dollars.  Belgium,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  and 
even  European  cities  borrow  American  money  to  pay 
their  bills. 

American  business  and  industrial  concerns  have 
established  branches  in  every  leading  European  and 
Asiatic  city.  In  one  of  the  public  squares  of  Paris, 
where  stands  a  great  monument  to  the  warrior,  Napo- 
leon, are  to  be  found  the  offices  of  two  of  America's 
richest  banking  houses.  Kingsbridge,  a  famous  street 
in  London,  is  almost  lined  with  the  displays  of  American 
merchandise.  A  forme'r  Chicago  boy  owns  the  largest 
department  store  in  the  capital  of  King  George. 

Once  America  depended  mainly  upon  English  ships 
to  carry  her  goods  over  the  seas.  Now  America  has 
a  splendid  merchant  marine  of  her  own  and  American 
captains  steam  into  the  ports  of  Egypt  for  cargoes  of 
cotton  destined  for  the  spinning  mills  of  England.  The 
sun  that  follows  the  British  empire  around  the  world 
finds  everywhere  signs  of  American  energy  and  Ameri- 
can .power. 

The  grand  climax  came  in  1921  when,  on  the  call 
of  President  Harding,  the  leading  naval  and  military 
powers  of  the  world  sent  delegates  to  a  conference  in 
Washington  to  consider  ways  of  peace.  What  a 
sweep  is  this  from  the  tiny  colonies  of  Jamestown  and 
Plymouth  to  the  mighty  nation  that  has  now  become 


AMERICA    AND   THE    WORLD  21 

the  center  of  the  world  !  What  a  heritage  we  have  ! 
What  grave  duties  the  possession  of  such  power  lays 
upon  the  people  of  this  nation  ! 

CONCLUSIONS 

1.  The    background    of   American    history     is    not 
the   history   of   the    Indians    who   inhabited  this  con- 
tinent before  the  Europeans  came. 

2.  It  is  not  merely  the  history  of  Europe  down  to 
the  founding  of  the  English  colonies  in  America. 

3.  The  background  of  American  history  is  in  very 
truth  the  history  of  the  world  down  to  the  landing  of 
the  last  boatload   of   immigrants   on  our   shores    and 
the  sailing  of  the  last  ship  from  an  American  port  for 
some  distant  land. 

4.  The  important  events  of  every  day  in  all  parts 
of   the   world    are    matters   of   concern   for  American 
citizens.     Busy  in  their  fields,  shops,  and  homes,  they 
may  not  think  so,  but  it  is  true.     The  United  States 
has  ties  binding  it  to  every  section  of  the  globe  in 
peace  and  war.     American  trade  is  carried  on  in  all 
markets.     American     business     men    vie    with     those 
of  Europe  in  hunting  for  new  oil  lands,   coal  fields, 
and  iron  mines  in  far-off  countries.     There  is  always 
danger  that  war  in   Europe  may  summon  American 
boys  from  farm  and  shop  to  fight  and  die  on  land  or 
sea.     In   fact,    the   graves   of  American    soldiers    and 
seamen  are  already  scattered   among  the  battlefields 
of  many  lands. 


22  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

5.  That  nation  is  greatest  which  gathers  the  best 
from  all  times  and  all  countries,  improves  upon  its 
heritage,  and  makes  the  noblest  use  of  its  powers  and 
talents  at  home  and  abroad. 

It  is  not  enough,  therefore,  for  American  citizens 
to  study  the  history  of  our  country  alone.  It  is  not 
enough  to  know  about  American  ideals  and  achieve- 
ments. To  understand  how  our  nation  came  to  be 
what  it  is,  and  to  serve  it  wisely,  we  must  study  the 
history  of  the  wide  world  of  which  it  is  a  part.  We 
must  even  learn  about  our  earliest  ancestors  and 
their  long  and  toilsome  way  upward  from  barbarism 
to  civilization,  from  ignorance  to  knowledge. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    How  many  Old  World  countries  are  represented  among 
the  pupils  of  your  schoolroom?     Let  each  pupil  find   out   from 
what  country  or  countries  his  family  originally  came.     Make  a 
list  of  these  countries  and  locate  them  on  the  map.       2.    Read 
the  newspapers  to  learn  from  what  Old  World  countries  news  is 
reported.     Let  two  or  three  pupils  read  different  papers  each  day 
if  possible,  and  make  reports.     At  the  end  of  a  week  make  a  list 
of  the   countries  from  which   news   is   most  frequently  reported. 
Locate  these  countries  on  the  map,  and  think  of  reasons  why  news 
from  them  is  of  interest  to  Americans.       3.    Which  of  the  books 
named  on  p.  4  have  you  read  in  whole  or  in  part  ? 

II.  i.   What  is  meant  by  the  statement  that  Japan  and  China 
have  been  "Europeanized"  ?     Tell  what  you  know  about  the  way 
in  which  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  have  lived  in  the  past.     How 
did  their  way  of  living  differ  from  the  way  in  which  Europeans 


AMERICA    AND    THE    WORLD  23 

and  Americans  have  been  living  ?  2.  American  merchants  who 
sell  goods  in  South  America,  in  Africa,  or  in  Asia  must  compete 
with  European  merchants;  what  does  "compete"  mean?  Why 
is  it  well  to  know  something  of  the  history  of  the  peoples  with 
whom  we  compete  in  trade?  3.  In  your  geographies  you  will 
find  pictures  of  cities  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America ;  study 
these  pictures  to  find  out  what  European  influences  they  show. 
For  example,  in  what  ways  do  the  buildings,  the  streets,  and  the 
dress  of  the  people  show  that  "  the  civilization  of  Europe  has  spread 
all  over  the  world"  ?  What  things  do  you  notice  in  these  pictures 
that  seem  not  to  have  been  affected  by  European  civilization  ? 

III.  I.    What  are  the   chief  differences   between   a   republican 
form  of  government  and  a  monarchy?     The  United  States  was 
the  first  great  modern  republic.     What  European  country  first 
followed  the  example  of  the  United  States  in  becoming  a  republic  ? 
What  European  countries  have  lately  changed  from  monarchies  to 
republics  ?    2.    How  did  troubles  in  Europe  affect  America  in  the 
French  and  Indian  War  ?     In  the  War  of  1812  ?     Why  have  great 
European  wars  had  so  great  an  influence  on  our  country  ?     Why 
would  it  probably  be  even  more  difficult  in  the  future  for  our 
country  not  to  become  involved  in  any  great  war  that  might  break 
out  in  the  Old  World  ?     What  steps  has  our  government  taken  to 
prevent  future  wars  in  the  Old  World?       3.    What  is  meant  by 
the  "  territorial  expansion "  of  our  country  ?     Name  and  locate 
the  important  possessions  of  the  United  States  outside  of  North 
America.       4.    Make  a  list  of  the  most  important  ways  in  which 
our  country  has  influenced  the  Old  World  in  the  past.       5.    Study 
the  newspapers  to  learn  in  what  ways  the  United  States  is  now 
influencing  the  Old  World. 

IV.  i.    Tell   why   the   history    of    the    Indians    who    lived    in 
America  before  the  time  of  Columbus,  even  if  they  had  left  a  his- 
tory, would  not  be  the  history  of  the  American  people.       2.   Give 
as  many  reasons  as  you  can  to  show  why  every  American  citizen 
should  know  something  of  Old  World  history. 


24 


AMERICA    AND    THE    WORLD  25 

GEOGRAPHICAL   STUDIES 

Study  carefully  the  map  on  the  opposite  page.  Most  of  the 
countries  that  we  shall  study  about  in  this  book  are  in  Europe. 
Compare  Europe  with  Asia  and  Africa  as  to  size.  Note  how  broken 
or  irregular  the  coast  line  of  Europe  is  as  compared  with  the  coast 
line  of  Asia  or  Africa.  Name  the  principal  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays 
of  Europe.  In  what  ways  have  these  been  of  advantage  to  the 
European  peoples  ?  A  number  of  cities  and  countries  are  men- 
tioned in  this  chapter ;  locate  all  of  these  on  the  map. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  EARLY  AGES   OF  MANKIND 

MANY  an  American  farmer  boy,  while  strolling  along 
a  river  bottom  or  plowing  a  field,  has  picked  up  stone 
arrowheads  or  stone  hatchets  that  were  made  long 
ago  by  American  Indians.  Such  weapons  have  been 
found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  They 


Courtesy  of  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York 

RUDE  STONE  IMPLEMENTS 

tell  us  of  human  beings  who  lived  in  a  crude  and  sav- 
age condition,  without  a  knowledge  of  metals,  without 
strong,  well-lighted  houses,  without  the  comforts  and 
the  tools  that  make  it  so  much  easier  for  people  to 
live  and  work  to-day. 

Now  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  such  stone  weapons 

have  been   found   also    in  other  parts  of  the  world ; 

26 


THE   EARLY  AGES  OF   MANKIND  27 

indeed,  in  nearly  every  country.  In  Europe  and  Asia, 
however,  they  are  not  usually  found  near  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  There  they  have  been  buried  deep 
by  drifting  sand  and  by  the  ruins  and  rubbish  left 
by  many  generations  of  people  who  had  learned  to 
use  metals  and  had  quit  making  stone  weapons.  By 
studying  these  stone  weapons  and  the  bones  and  various 
things  found  with  them  in  rubbish  heaps,  scholars 
have  learned  much  about  the  way  people  lived  long 
ago  before  the  invention  of  writing  made  written 
records  possible.  The  long  period  before  the  inven- 
tion of  writing  is  known  as  the  prehistoric  ages,  "  pre  " 
being  the  Latin  word  for  "  before." 

THE  PREHISTORIC  AGES  —  FROM  STONE  TO 
METALS 

The  Old  Stone  Age.  For  many  long  centuries, 
all  mankind  lived  very  much  as  the  North  American 
Indians  lived  before  white  men  came  to  this  continent. 
In  France  and  elsewhere  in  Europe,  there  have  been 
discovered  deep  caves  which  had  been  closed  for 
thousands  of  years.  In  these  caverns,  the  bones  of 
human  beings  have  been  found  and,  along  with  them, 
the  bones  of  animals,  like  the  woolly  rhinoceros  and 
the  mammoth,  that  do  not  exist  to-day.  In  these 
caverns,  as  well  as  in  sand  banks,  there  have  been 
unearthed  many  rude  implements  made  of  stone. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  implements  found  at  the 
very  bottom  of  these  caves  and  sand  banks  were 


28 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


scarcely  more  than  rude  flakes  and  chunks  of  stone, 
historians  speak  of  the  earliest  part  of  the  prehistoric 
period  as  the  Old  Stone  Age.  How  long  it  lasted  we 
do  not  know. 

The  New  Stone  Age.  In  the  upper  layers  of  the 
rubbish  in  caves  and  in  river  drift  were  found  better 
and  better  tools  in  ever  greater 
variety ;  hence  the  term,  New  Stone 
Age.  Progress  among  primitive 
people  was  slow,  very  slow;  but 
there  was  some  advancement.  The 
crude  way  of  chipping  stone  was  im- 
proved.  Axes,  spearheads,  and 
arrowheads  came  to  be  made  of 
stone  that  could  be  highly  polished 
and  brought  to  a  sharper  edge  or 
finer  point.  In  addition  to  weap- 
ons, there  were  bone  needles,  frag- 
ments of  pots,  scrapers,  flint  knives, 
and  other  things  used  in  making 
clothing  and  preparing  food. 

The  Bronze  Age.  The  New  Stone 
Age  gradually  merged  into  what  is 
called  the  Bronze  Age.  As  primitive  people  became 
more  and  more  expert  in  making  stone  implements, 
they  began  to  take  note  of  the  differences  among 
stones  of  various  kinds.  Whenever  they  discovered  a 
new  kind  of  stone,  they  doubtless  tried  to  see  what 
they  could  do  with  it. 


Natural  History  M  useum 
A  POLISHED  FLINT 


THE  EARLY  AGES  OF  MANKIND 


29 


Now  it  happens  that  one  of  the  few  metals  that  is 
found  in  a  state  which  permits  immediate  use  is  copper. 
In  their  hunts  for  useful  stones,  primitive  people  found 
chunks  of  copper  and  learned  that  it  was  malleable ; 
that  is,  it  could  be  pounded  into  various  shapes. 
They  found  also  that  they  could  polish  it  by  rubbing 


EARLY  STONE  HAMMERS 


Natural  History  Museum 


it  hard.  As  they  loved  to  adorn  themselves,  they 
made  ornaments  of  this  shining  metal.  Since  it  was 
not  very  hard,  however,  it  was  not  a  good  substance 
for  axes  and  spears.  The  edge  of  copper  would  not 
keep  its  sharpness. 

In  their  search  among  the  stones,  primitive  people 
also  found  another  metal,  tin.  After  a  long  time, 
they  discovered  that  by  melting  tin  and  mixing  it 
with  copper  they  could  make  a  hard  alloy,  called 
bronze.  Then  they  had  a  metal  that  could  be  hardened 


30  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

and  polished  and  given  a  keen  and  lasting  edge.  It 
could  be  used  for  making  tools,  weapons,  sheets  of 
metal,  pots,  kettles,  and  many  other  useful  things. 
This  marked  a  wonderful  advance  in  manufacture. 


Natural  History  Museum 


AN  AMERICAN  INDIAN  IRON  FORGE 


The  Iron  Age.  Late  in  the  prehistoric  period, 
primitive  people  discovered  the  most  wonderful  metal 
of  all,  iron.  This  was  still  harder  than  bronze  and 
could  be  worked  up  almost  as  easily  into  weapons, 
tools,  and  utensils.  When  mankind  reached  this  stage 


THE   EARLY   AGES  OF   MANKIND  31 

-the    Iron    Age,--\t   was    well   on    its    way   toward 
settled  and  civilized  life. 

The  Ages  Overlap.  In  trying  to  picture  to  our- 
selves these  long  stages  through  which  mankind  passed 
in  prehistoric  times,  we  must  keep  some  things  firmly 
in  mind.  First,  the  ages  overlapped  even  among  the 
same  races  ;  that  is,  they  did  not  pass  suddenly  from 
one  to  the  other.  Secondly,  different  races  passed 
through  these  ages  at  different  times.  Thirdly,  some 
races  skipped  one  or  more  of  them.  For  example, 
the  North  American  Indians  were  in  the  Stone  Age  when 
Columbus  discovered  the  New  World.  They  did  not 
pass  slowly  upward  through  the  Bronze  and  Iron  Ages. 
They  got  tools,  weapons,  and  cooking  utensils  from  the 
white  man,  and  leaped  all  at  once,  so  to  speak,  into 
the  age  of  iron  and  steel.  So  it  has  been  with  many 
other  primitive  peoples.  Even  in  modern  times,  how- 
ever, there  have  been  discovered  some  races  that  have 
advanced  no  farther  in  civilization  than  the  cave 
dwellers  of  Europe  who  lived  more  than  five  thousand 
years  ago. 

LIFE  AMONG  PRIMITIVE  PEOPLES 

The  Sad  Plight  of  the  Earliest  People.     One  of  the 

most  interesting  stories  of  all  past  ages  is  that  which 
tells  of  primitive  peoples  beginning  their  long  and 
toilsome  struggle  upward  from  savagery.  Born  into 
a  world  which  they  did  not  understand,  they  were 


32  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

face  to  face  with  terrible  foes  —  cold,  hunger,  thirst, 
tempest,  and  wild  beasts.  They  had  to  find  for  them- 
selves food,  clothing,  and  shelter  ;  yet  for  this  task  they 
were  far  worse  off  than  Robinson  Crusoe  when  he  was 
thrown  upon  a  lonely  island.  Crusoe  had  saved  many 


Natural  History  Museum 


AN  EARLY  LAKE  DWELLING 


tools  from  the  wrecked  ship,  and  he  had  a  knowledge 
of  many  other  things  which  he  did  not  actually  possess. 
This  knowledge  enabled  him  to  make  clothing,  build 
a  suitable  shelter,  tame  goats,  plant  grains,  and  culti- 
vate fields. 

The  first  peoples,  on  the  other  hand,  had  no  tools, 
no  knowledge  of  grains,  no  domestic  animals,  no  iron 


THE   EARLY  AGES  OF  MANKIND 


33 


forges.  But  they  had  to  live ;  so  they  began  to  use 
their  brains  in  two  ways.  First,  they  protected  them- 
selves against  the  elements  —  heat,  cold,  and  storm. 
Secondly,  they  tried  to  understand  the  resources  of 
nature  and  to  provide  themselves  with  food.  Fortu- 
nately they  had  a 
friend,  as  well  as  a 
foe,  in  nature.  They 
found  shelter  in  caves 
and  food  in  the  forests 
and  streams.  As  they 
made  discoveries, 
they  added  to  their 
knowledge.  They 
began  to  build  shelter 
and  to  grow  food. 
Each  step  they  took 
carried  them  farther 
along  the  way. 

Men,  the  Hunters 
and  Warriors.  In  this 
upward  struggle, 

there  was  a  division  of  labor  between  the  men  and 
the  women.  Men  became  the  hunters  of  animals 
for  food  and  skins  and  the  protectors  against  en- 
emies. They  killed  game  in  the  forests  and  streams. 
They  fought  wild  beasts  and  their  own  savage  kind. 
Thus  they  became  skillful  in  the  arts  of  the  chase  and 
warfare.  They  made  weapons  of  all  kinds.  In  their 


Natural  History  Museum 
RUDE  DRAWINGS  ON  THE  WALL  OF  A  CAVE 


34  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

leisure  hours,  they  polished  and  decorated  their  spear 
handles  and  bows.  Sometimes  they  drew,  on  the 
walls  of  their  caves,  pictures  of  the  animals  they  had 
hunted.  They  became  artists  after  a  fashion.  Their 
eyes  and  ears  were  sharpened  in  the  search  for  .prey. 
Their  limbs  became  lithe  and  supple  as  they  chased 
the  deer.  They  tamed  the  dog  to  help  them  on  the 
hunt  and  they  learned  the  mysterious  ways  of  wild 
animals. 

Women  and  the  Arts  of  Peace.  On  the  other  hand, 
primitive  women  started  the  arts  of  peace  —  industries 
of  all  kinds,  agriculture,  and  homemaking.  While 
the  men  were  on  the  hunt,  women  studied  grains, 
plants,  and  fruits.  One  writer  has  said  :  "  One  cannot, 
without  profound  thought,  look  upon  the  picture  of 
a  long  train  of  Ute  women  (North  American  Indians) 
coming  home  with  their  drying  baskets  full  of  seeds 
upon  their  backs,  supported  by  bands  across  their 
foreheads,  holding  also  in  one  hand  a  gathering  wand 
and  in  the  other  a  winnowing  and  roasting  tray.  For 
these  women  are  indeed  the  forerunners  of  all  farmers 
and  harvesters  and  threshers  and  common  carriers  and 
millers  and  cooks.  The  National  Museum  at  Wash- 
ington possesses  a  collection  of  food  plants  used  by 
savage  women,  and  in  the  Royal  Kew  Gardens  in 
London  may  be  seen  an  exhibit  arranged  on  the  basis 
of  plants.  Unwittingly  both  these  museums  have 
erected  monuments  to  the  manual  labor  and  skill  of 
savage  women." 


THE    EARLY    AGES    OF    MANKIND 


35 


Primitive  women  learned  a  great  deal  about  cooking. 
They  cut  up  and  cured  the  meat  killed  by  the  hunters. 
They  discovered  how  to  parch  and  roast  in  pits  filled 
with  hot  stones.  They  learned  how  to  grind  grain, 
to  bake,  and  to  boil.  As  this  work  fell  to  them,  it 
was  doubtless  they  who 
invented  the  first  utensils 
-  baskets  to  carry  grain 
in  and  pots  to  cook  in. 
They  found  out  how  to 
store  provisions  and  they 
tamed  the  wild  cat  to 
protect  their  stocks  from 
vermin.  In  their  endless 
wanderings,  they  learned 


Natural  History  Museum. 
the     qualities     of     plants.  A  PIECE  OF  PRIMITIVE  POTTERY 

They    found    that    some 

were  good,  some  were  poisonous,  and  others  useful 
in  sickness.  They  were  therefore  doctors  and  chemists, 
as  they  collected  drugs  and  ground  them  for  medicine. 
In  our  National  Museum,  there  are  hundreds  of  speci- 
mens of  drugs  that  savage  women  used. 

Primitive  women  were  also  the  first  clothiers.  They 
cut  and  sewed  the  skins  of  the  animals  caught  in  the 
hunt  and  made  garments  from  them.  They  learned 
how  to  make  threads  from  wool  and  from  certain 
vegetables.  They  were  the  first  spinners  and  weavers. 
As  time  passed,  they  became  ever  more  skillful  and 
artistic.  They  made  dyes  from  the  juices  of  the  plants 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


they  knew,  and  they  made  beads  from  bright-colored 
bits  of  stone.  Thus  domestic  arts  began.  To  prim- 
itive women  we  owe  the  beginnings  of  gardening,  home 

music,  pottery,  sculp- 
ture, weaving,  and 
embroidery. 

Finally  there  was 
the  care  of  the  baby. 
It  was  woman's  great 
task  to  feed  and  care 
for  the  children. 
While  the  warrior  de- 
stroyed life  in  battle, 
she  protected  life. 
While  his  spirit  fed 
on  hatred  of  his  en- 
emies, her  spirit  was 
nourished  by  the  love 
of  her  little  ones.  She 
not  only  cared  for 
their  physical  needs. 
She  taught  them  out 
of  her  store  of  knowl- 


edge   how    to    guard 


A/atuml  History  Museum 

NAVAJO  WOMAN  WEAVING 

against  things  danger- 
ous to  life.  The  girls  she  trained  in  her  domestic  arts. 
The  boys,  as  they  grew  up,  were  trained  by  the  father 
in  hunting,  fishing,  and  fighting. 


THE    EARLY    AGES    OF    MANKIND 


37 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  HUMAN  SOCIETY 

The  Savage  Society.  In  the  earliest  days  of  mankind 
people  lived  together  in  small  groups.  Their  only  ties 
were  those  of  the  family.  Such  a  group  is  called  a 
savage  society.  Its  members  were  few.  They  had 
for  a  long  time  no  domestic  animal.  They  had  no 
fixed  homes  but  lived  in  forests  and  caves.  They 
wandered  about 
from  place  to  place 
in  small  bands 
hunting  for  food 
and  shelter. 
Human  beings  liv- 
ing in  this  early 
stage  of  society, 
known  as  Bush- 
men, were  found 
in  Australia  when 
white  men  first 
went  there. 

Domestic  Animals  and  Tribal  Society.  Humanity 
took  an  immense  stride  forward  when  it  discovered 
how  to  tame  the  goat,  the  cow,  and  the  sheep.  This 
knowledge  made  it  possible  to  have  milk,  meat,  and 
cloth  without  the  uncertain  and  exhausting  labor  of 
the  hunt.  We  do  not  know  when  this  remarkable 
discovery  was  made ;  but  we  do  know  that  it  was 
long  before  people  learned  to  write  any  story  of  their 


Natural  History  Museum 
FINE  ART  IN  SAVAGE  SOCIETY 


38  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

doings.  It  is  thought  that  the  dog  or  the  cat  was  the 
first  animal  to  be  tamed.  That  may  have  been  a 
step  toward  the  taming  of  goats  and  other  animals 
caught  on  the  chase  and  kept  alive  for  food. 

After  the  domestication  of  animals,  life  for  man- 
kind became  more  certain  and  secure  than  when  every- 
thing depended  upon  hunting  and  fishing.  Property 
began  to  accumulate.  Some  men  grew  rich  and  power- 
ful as  their  flocks  increased.  Great  tribes  of  people 
gathered  around  the  possessors  of  huge  herds  of  cattle. 
There  was  much  work  to  be  done  watching  and  taking 
care  of  the  animals.  Slavery  was  introduced  because 
the  labor  of  captives  became  valuable  to  the  captors. 
So  some  men  were  turned  from  hunting  and  fishing 
to  join  the  women  in  peaceful  pursuits.  Stores  of 
meat,  cheese,  skins,  and  wool  were  laid  up  against 
times  of  dearth.  In  short,  mankind  was  lifted  one  stage 
above  the  perilous  and  uncertain  life  of  the  savage. 

At  the  same  time,  warfare  became  a  regular  thing, 
as  tribesmen  fought  each  other  over  cattle  or  grazing 
lands.  If  you  will  take  your  Old  Testament  and  read 
the  Book  of  Numbers,  you  will  see  how  the  Israelites 
attacked  the  Midianites  and  took  from  them  their 
flocks  and  herds.  Indeed,  in  many  of  the  early  books 
of  the  Bible  there  are  accounts  of  tribes  waging  war 
on  their  neighbors  and  seizing  their  cattle. 

The  Art  of  Planting  and  Reaping.  Later  in  primitive 
times,  long  before  the  art  of  writing  was  discovered, 
there  came  a  second  wonderful  discovery ;  namely, 


THE    EARLY    AGES    OF    MANKIND  39 

that  seeds  planted  in  the  ground  will  take  root  and 
produce  new  supplies  of  grain.  With  some  ancient 
peoples  that  discovery  may  have  preceded  the  taming 
of  animals,  but  generally  it  was  much  later.  When 
and  where  the  art  of  agriculture  began,  we  know  not. 
One  ingenious  student  of  primitive  life  explains  it  in  the 
following  way.  Grain  grew  wild  in  the  forests.  Primi- 
tive women  gathered  it  and  made  bread  of  it  by  mixing 
it  with  water  and  baking  it  on  hot  rocks.  In  a  time  of 
abundance  some  of  the  grain  was  hidden  in  the  ground, 
and,  lo  and  behold  !  it  was  called  to  life  a  hundred 
fold  by  the  spring  rains.  Once  discovered,  the  process 
was  easy  to  repeat.  So  the  secret  of  the  seeds  was 
found  out.  This  is,  of  course,  sheer  guesswork ;  yet  it 
may  be  a  correct  answer  to  the  riddle.  At  all  events, 
we  know  that  thousands  of  years  before  there  were 
any  written  records  of  history  the  art  of  planting  and 
reaping  was  learned. 

The  Beginnings  of  Settled  Life.  This  art  was  des- 
tined to  make  another  important  change  in  the  af- 
fairs of  mankind,  one  even  greater  than  that  made 
by  the  domestication  of  animals.  While  people  de- 
pended upon  hunting  and  cattle  raising  for  a  livelihood, 
they  had  to  be  constantly  on  the  move  from  one  hunt- 
ing ground  or  pasture  to  another.  This  migratory,  or 
nomadic,  life  was,  in  time,  completely  changed  by  the 
discovery  of  agriculture.  When  people  learned  the 
value  of  the  soil,  they  began  to  settle  down  to  till  it. 
Houses  took  the  place  of  tents.  The  land  was  claimed 


40  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

as  the  property  of  the  tribe  or  family  that  settled  on 
it.  More  and  more  slaves  were  captured  to  till  the 
fields.  Scattered  bands  of  savage  hunters  thus  de- 
veloped into  farmers.  The  nomadic  shepherds  were 
driven  farther  and  farther  into  the  hills  as  the  farms 
spread  out  in  every  direction.  Nations  were  founded. 
A  mighty  struggle  for  possession  of  the  earth  began. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    Why   is   it   so  difficult   to  learn   how  man   lived    during 
the  long  ages  that  preceded  the  historic  period  ?       2.    To  make 
and  use  fire  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  great  inventions  of  primi- 
tive man ;    by  what  means  could  primitive  man  have  discovered 
how  to  make  fire  ?     In  what  ways  did  the  control  of  fire  help  primi- 
tive man?       3.    Imagine  yourself  left,  like  Robinson  Crusoe,  on 
a  desert  island,  but  without  the  tools  that  he  obtained  from  the 
wreck.     What  would  you  do  to  enable  yourself  to  live  ?     Even 
if  you  did  not  have  tools,  are  there  any  ways  in  which  you  would 
be  better  off  than  a  primitive  man  in  the  same  position  ?       4.    Why 
are  metal  tools  better  than  stone  tools  ?     How  did  it  happen  that 
copper  was  used  before  iron  ?     For  what  purposes  is  copper  used 
to-day  ?     5.  Bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  ;   what  is  meant 
by  an  "alloy"?     Modern  coins  are  usually  alloys;    find  out  of 
what  metals  the  one-cent  piece,  the  five-cent  piece,  and  the  twenty- 
five-cent  piece  are  alloys.     Why  is  bronze  not  used  much  for  tools 
and  weapons  to-day  ?    6.  Many   of   the   inventions    and   discov- 
eries of  primitive  peoples  were  undoubtedly  made  by  women; 
what   modern    inventions    and    discoveries    have   been    made    by 
women  ?       7.    Make  a  list  of  the  important  inventions  and  dis- 
coveries that  were  made  before  the  time  of  recorded  history. 

II.  i.    What    animals    were    probably    first    tamed    by    primi- 


THE    EARLY    AGES    OF    MANKIND  41 

tive  peoples  ?  What  animals  do  you  know  of  that  have  been 
tamed  or  domesticated  since  recorded  history  began  ?  2.  What 
is  meant  by  a  "nomadic  society"  ?  In  what  ways  is  a  nomadic 
society,  living  on  its  herds  of  domesticated  animals,  an  advance 
over  a  savage  society,  living  chiefly  by  hunting  wild  beasts  ? 
3.  How  does  a  farming  people  differ  from  a  nomadic  people  ?  In 
what  ways  is  this  difference  an  advance  toward  civilization  ? 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

I.  Remains  of  people  that  lived  in  Europe  in  the  Old  Stone 
Age  have  been  found  chiefly  in  Spain  and  France ;  locate  these 
countries  on  the  map  facing  p.  436.  2.  Some  scholars  believe  that 
these  primitive  peoples  originally  entered  Europe  from  northern 
Africa ;  study  the  outline  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  (p.  436)  and 
note  the  places  at  which  these  peoples  may  have  found  it  easiest 
to  cross  from  Africa  to  Europe.  It  is  believed  by  some  that  in 
very  early  times  there  was  a  land  connection  between  Europe  and 
Africa  at  two  points.  Gibraltar  was  one  of  these;  where  might 
the  other  "land  bridge"  have  been  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 
FOR  PUPILS 

CLODD,  EDWARD  —  The  Childhood  of  the  World;  Macmillan. 

The  Story  of  Primitive  Man;  Appleton. 
VAN  LOON,  HENDRIK  W.  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition), 

i-iv ;  Macmillan. 
WELLS,  MARGARET  E.  —  How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past, 

Book  I,  i-vi ;  Macmillan. 

FOR  TEACHERS 

OSBORN,  N.  F.  —  Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age;   Scribner. 

TYLER,  J.  M.  —  The  New  Stone  Age  in  Northern  Europe;  Scribner. 

WELLS,  H.  G.  —  The  Outline  of  History,  I,  viii-x ;   Macmillan. 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY 

AFTER  mankind  learned  to  tame  animals  and  till 
the  soil,  the  number  of  people  on  the  earth  increased. 
Rich  grazing  lands  were  made  use  of  for  flocks  and 
herds.  Fertile  river  valleys  were  laid  out  into  fields 
for  cultivation.  Men  who  had  once  thought  only  of 
hunting  and  fishing  settled  down  with  the  women  to 
the  arts  of  peace.  Wealth  in  cattle  and  grain  accu- 
mulated. 

Then  those  who  had  riches  became  a  target  for  the 
tribes  which  kept  their  old  fighting  habits.  Warriors 
found  it  easier  to  conquer  and  rob  than  to  watch  flocks 
or  till  the  soil  themselves.  Warfare  on  a  large  scale 
came  to  plague  the  earth's  multitudes.  Out  of  war- 
fare sprang  powerful  military  leaders  who  conquered 
vast  territories  inhabited  by  herdsmen  and  tillers  of 
the  soil.  So  began  the  making  of  kingdoms  and  em- 
pires, wide-reaching  and  long-enduring. 

THE  NATIONS  OF  THE  ORIENT 

Oriental  Despotisms.     The  oldest  nations  of  which 

we  have  written  records  rose  in  the  fertile  valleys  of 

42 


THE   GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY 


43 


the  Nile  and  Euphrates  rivers,  in  the  regions  generally 
known  as  Egypt  and  Babylonia.  There  many  a 
kingdom  was  set  up,  flourished,  and  vanished  thousands 
of  years  before  Christ.  Indeed,  the  history  of  the 
earliest  centuries  about  which  we  know  anything  is  little 
more  than  a  story  of  one  mighty  king  after  another. 

First,  it  seems,  warriors  from  the  regions  of  Babylonia 
conquered  the  lands  east  to  the  mountains  and  west 
to  the  Mediterranean.  They  ruled  millions  of  subjects 
and  were,  in  turn,  themselves  overthrown. 

Then  the  emperors,  or  Pharaohs, 
of  Egypt  extended  their  dominion 
by  force  of  arms  from  the  Sahara 
to  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates. 
They  governed  their  subjects  with 
pomp  and  ceremony.  Then  they, 
too,  were  beaten  in  battles.  After 
them  came  the  Persian  emperors, 
who  overran  all  Asia  Minor  and 
Egypt  and  boasted  of  an  empire 
greater  than  any  the  world  had  yet 
seen.  They  also  had  their  day  and 
left  behind  nothing  but  a  few  relics 
to  tell  of  their  riches  and  power.  *«„,****  **»»* 

One  modern  scholar  fixes  the  date   A  STATUE  OF  AN  EGYP- 
of  the  first  Egyptian  king  at  more 
than  5000  years  before  Christ ;    another  places  it  at 
3400  B.C.     The  earliest  mention  of  Babylon  is  at  least 
3800  B.C.     We  know  that  about  2300  B.C.  the  borders 


44 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


of  the  kingdom  of  Babylon  reached  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean.  We  know  that  before  the  earliest 
kings  of  whom  we  have  written  records  there  were 
hundreds  of  minor  rulers  who  built  up  great  states  and 
disappeared  before  new  conquerors. 

The  striking  thing  about  these  ancient  kings  is  that 


THE  RUINS  AT  THEBES  (EGYPT) 


From  an  old  print 


they  were  all  despots,  or  absolute  rulers.  That  the 
common  people,  who  tilled  the  fields,  wove  the  cloth, 
or  guarded  the  herds,  should  have  a  voice  in  their  own 
government  was  not  thought  of.  The  king  stood  above 
all.  Everything  was  made  to  glorify  his  name.  The 
mighty  pyramids  of  Egypt  were  the  tombs  of  kings. 


THE  GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY  45 

The  ruins  of  temples  that  still  stand  tell  of  their  maj- 
esty. The  pictures  on  the  crumbling  walls,  the  huge 
statues  that  once  adorned  imperial  cities,  the  songs 
and  ballads  that  have  survived  the  wreck  of  ages,  all 


From  an  old  print 
Two  GIANT  GUARDIANS  OF  A  VANISHED  EMPIRE 

bear  witness  to  the  prowess  and  grandeur  of  the  despot. 
Artists,  architects,  and  writers  vied  with  one  another 
in  praising  the  names  and  deeds  of  their  royal  masters. 
Some  kings  ruled  more  wisely  than  others,  but 
practically  all  of  them  ruled  without  regard  to  the 
desires  of  their  peoples.  They  levied  taxes  at  will; 


46  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

they  imprisoned  or  put  to  death  any  who  incurred 
their  displeasure ;  they  waged  war,  whenever  they 
liked,  to  gain  territory  or  to  add  to  their  glory.  Their 
strength  lay  in  the  ignorance  and  fear  of  their  subjects  ; 
their  weakness  lay  in  the  fact  that  their  subjects  and 
slaves  did  not  care  much  whether  their  rulers  were 
overthrown  in  battle  or  not. 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  EMPIRES 

Under  such  a  system,  the  people  had  no  freedom  of 
spirit.  They  had  to  flatter  the  king  to  secure  his 
favor.  They  cringed  before  him  to  escape  his  ill-will. 
They  said  and  wrote  things  to  please  him.  As  despot- 
ism was  the  chief  mark  of  the  government,  so  cowardice 


THE  GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY  47 

and  cringing  were  the  chief  marks  of  the  subjects. 
Fraud  and  deceit  became  common  ;  for  by  deceit  the 
king's  taxes  and  penalties  could  be  avoided. 

GREECE  AND  ROME 

The  City-States  of  Greece.  In  strange  contrast 
to  the  despotic  empires  of  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor 
were  the  governments  of  Greece.  The  Greeks  were  a 
marvelous  shepherd  people  who  in  very  ancient  times 
moved  down  in  search  of  pasture  into  the  rugged 
peninsula  that  bears  their  name.  They  conquered 
the  people  who  already  dwelt  there  and  at  the  same 
time  learned  much  from  their  subjects.  Their  new 
homeland  was  broken  into  many  small  regions  by  the 
mountains  and  the  sea.  It  had  no  great  river  like  the 
Nile  and  no  vast  plains  like  those  of  Babylonia. 

Though  the  Greeks  lived  close  together  and  wor- 
shiped the  same  gods,  they  could  not  be  permanently 
united.  Many  alliances  and  leagues  were  formed 
among  them,  it  is  true,  but  none  of  these  lasted  for 
long.  It  is  true  also  that  the  Greeks  of  Macedonia, 
under  Alexander  the  Great,  built  up  a  huge  empire 
extending  from  the  Danube  River  to  the  borders  of 
India  ;  but  it  did  not  survive  his  death  in  323  B.C.  The 
peoples  of  Greece  were  too  independent  to  bow  their 
necks  to  a  single  ruler.  They  were  happiest  when 
divided  into  tiny  states  or  commonwealths,  each  man- 
aging its  own  affairs.  In  desperate  battles  they  beat 
off  Persian  kings  who  tried  to  subdue  them,  and 


48 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


not   until   many   centuries    had   passed    did   they   fall 
under  the   sword  of  the  Romans. 

In  the  eighth  century  before  Christ,  there  were  in 
the  Greek  peninsula  scores  of  these  little  countries 
known  as  city-states.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned 
Corinth,  Thebes,  Miletus,  and  Argos.  Most  famous 
and  important  of  all  were  Athens  and  Sparta. 


ANCIENT  GREECE 

The  Greek  state  was  usually  no  larger  than  a  county 
in  Ohio  or  Iowa.  It  had  a  sort  of  capital  city  with 
shops,  temples,  dwellings,  and  market  places.  The  coun- 
try around  it  was  laid  out  into  small  villages  and  farms. 
Each  community  formed  one  great  family.  The  mem- 


THE   GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY 


49 


From  an  old  print 


THE  PARTHENON  —  THE  FAMOUS  TEMPLE  AT  ATHENS 

bers  of  it  believed  that  they  were  the  descendants 
of  the  same  god  and  were  thus  related.  The  citizens 
of  each  little  state  were  intensely  patriotic.  They 
were  also  enterprising,  for  they  founded  colonies  all 
around  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Within  their  city-states  the  Greeks  made  many  kinds 
of  experiments  in  governing  themselves.  There  were, 
however,  three  forms  of  government  that  were  most 
common :  the  monarchy,  or  rule  of  one  man ;  the 
aristocracy,  which  meant  in  practice  the  rule  of  the 
few ;  and  the  democracy,  or  rule  of  the  many.  Our 
very  word  "  democracy  "  comes  from  the  Greek  and 
means  "  rule  of  the  people." 


50  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

A  Greek  democracy,  however,  differed  very  much 
from  our  modern  notions.  In  Athens,  for  example,  when 
the  people  ruled,  the  voters  did  not  choose  representa- 
tives to  go  to  the  capital  and  make  laws.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  voters  all  assembled  in  the  open  air.  They 
approved  or  rejected  laws  proposed  to  them,  and  they 
chose  the  magistrates  or  officials  of  the  little  state. 


A  GREEK  TEMPLE  AT  PAESTUM  IN  ITALY 

In  another  respect  also  the  Greek  city  democracy 
differed  from  ours.  In  Athens,  for  instance,  even  in 
the  democratic  period,  there  were  about  as  many 
slaves  as  there  were  Athenians.  There  were  five  or 
six  slaves  for  every  citizen  who  had  a  right  to  vote 
in  the  assembly.  At  its  best,  therefore,  democracy  in 
Greece  was  limited  to  a  very  small  ruling  class.  The 
masses  did  not  rule.  They  were  slaves  —  men  and 
women,  usually  white,  taken  captive  in  war  or  bought 
somewhere  in  a  slave  market. 


THE  GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY 


Rome  :  Kingdom,  Republic,  Empire.  Of  all  the  an- 
cient states,  Rome  became  in  time  the  most  mighty. 
Yet  it  began  most  modestly.  Sometime  in  the  dim 
past  there  began  to  flourish  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber 
a  tiny  kingdom  inhabited  by  farmers.  For  more  than 
two  hundred  years  (753-5093.0.)  its  kings  slowly  ex- 
tended their  power  over  the  surrounding  country. 


Metropolitan  Museum 

A  WAR  CHARIOT  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS,  AN  ITALIAN  PEOPLE  CONQUERED 

BY  ROME 


While  Rome  was  expanding,  her  last  king  was  over- 
thrown and  a  republic  was  founded.  Following  the 
example  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Babylonians,  and  the 
Persians,  the  Romans  tried  to  conquer  the  known 
world.  They  defeated  in  wars  all  the  other  little 


52  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

states  in  the  Italian  peninsula  and  made  them  subject 
to  the  republic.  Then  they  began  to  fight  beyond  the 
borders  of  Italy.  They  conquered  Carthage,  Greece, 
Gaul,  much  of  Britain,  all  of  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean country,  and  Egypt.  Their  armies,  led  by 
generals  like  Julius  Caesar,  were  invincible.  The 
proudest  princes,  beaten  by  them  in  wars,  were  dragged 
to  Rome  to  march  as  captives  in  triumphal  parades. 
Cleopatra,  the  beautiful  queen  of  Egypt,  escaped 
them  only  by  committing  suicide.  Owing  to  their 
victorious  armies,  the  dominions  of  the  Roman  re- 
public finally  stretched  from  Britain  to  Arabia. 

While  Rome  was  growing,  its  government  re- 
mained very  much  the"  same.  The  vast  republic  was 
ruled  by  the  city  of  Rome.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  city- 
state.  The  people  of  Greece,  or  Gaul,  or  Spain  were 
given  no  voice  in  public  affairs.  They  were  governed 
with  a  stern  hand  by  officers  sent  out  from  the  capital. 
In  the  city  itself,  the  government  consisted  of  a  senate, 
composed  of  nobles  and  rich  men,  two  assemblies  of 
citizens,  and  magistrates  elected  by  the  assemblies. 
Every  male  Roman  citizen  who  was  in  the  city  of  Rome 
at  the  time  of  the  meetings  could  vote  in  the  assembly. 

Was  this  not  an  amazing  situation  ?  A  few  thousand 
men  assembled  in  open  meetings  in  Rome  could  deter- 
mine the  fate  of  vast  and  distant  dominions  and  millions 
of  subjects. 

Untold  wealth  poured  into  Rome  from  the  provinces. 
The  little  nation  of  farmers  became  a  nation  of  reck- 


53 


54 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


less  rich  men  and  a  city  rabble.     The  rich  grew  richer ; 

the  poor  voters  grew  more  and  more  corrupt  and  sold 

their  votes  to  the  highest  bidder. 

Slowly  the   Roman   republic  was   changed   into  an 

empire  under  the  rule  of  one  man.     No  exact  date  can 

be  fixed  for  this  change.  It  was 
brought  about  by  victorious  gen- 
erals like  Julius  Caesar  (100-44 
B.C.)  who  came  back  from  the 
frontiers  at  the  head  of  their 
armies  and  seized  upon  power 
at  the  city  of  Rome  itself.  Some- 
times these  generals  waged  wars 
among  themselves.  At  last  in  3 1 
B.C.  one  of  them,  Octavianus, 

From  an  old -prt'it     i  .1  r      ,1 

JULIUS  CAESAR  became  the    master   of   the    so- 

called    Roman    republic.      Four 

years  later  the  Roman  senate  made  the  conqueror  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  head  of  the  Roman 
religion,  and  gave  him  the  title  Augustus,  which  had 
hitherto  been  given  only  to  their  gods.  In  other 
words,  they  made  him  emperor.  The  old  forms  of 
government  were  not  changed.  The  senate  still  met  and 
the  assemblies  of  citizens  still  gathered  ;  but  the  republic 
was  dead  in  fact,  if  not  in  name. 

In  the  course  of  time,  the  august  emperor  became  the 
absolute  master.  The  republic  was  changed  into  an 
empire  ruled  by  one  man  whose  word  was  law  from 
Spain  to  Pontus.  The  emperors,  as  they  followed 


THE  GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY  55 

one  another  in  a  long  train,  brought  huge  stores  of 
treasures  to  the  city  of  Rome.  They  built  magnif- 
icent public  buildings,  massive  triumphal  arches, 
great  highways,  marvelous  public  baths,  and  vast 
amphitheaters  for  the  entertainment  of  the  people 


THE  ARCH  OF  CONSTANTINE 

of  the  city.  They  tried  hard  to  keep  the  citizens  at 
Rome  contented.  They  gave  bread  to  the  masses 
and  they  amused  them  with  shows  in  the  amphitheater, 
where  men  called  gladiators  engaged  in  mortal  com- 
bat or  fought  with  lions  and  tigers  —  "  every  form 


56  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

of  man  or  beast  the  broad  empire  of  Rome  could 
furnish."  Never  had  the  world  beheld  such  splendid 
buildings,  such  wealth,  such  display  of  riches,  such 
pomp  and  pride. 

For  about  four  hundred  years  the  empire  of  Rome 
lasted,  but  in  the  course  of  time  it  began  to  grow 
steadily  weaker.  Finally  it  was  broken  up  like  the  older 
empires  of  the  East  (see  p.  43).  The  citizens  of  Rome 
sank  into  luxury  and  sloth.  A  Roman  writer  lamented  : 
"  That  majestic  people  which  once  controlled  armies, 
high  offices,  and  everything  else,  now  limits  its  desires 
and  its  eager  longings  to  two  things  only --bread 
and  circus  games  !  "  When  the  army  failed,  the  empire 
fell.  Rome  could  no  longer  rule  the  civilized  world. 
Where  august  emperors  once  reigned  in  all  their  glory, 
we  now  behold  the  broken  ruins  of  amphitheaters, 
fallen  arches,  and  heaps  of  brick  and  stone.  The 
struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  earth  passed  from 
the  Romans  to  other  races.  We  shall  see  later  how 
they,  in  turn,  played  their  part. 

SOCIAL  CLASSES  IN  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

The  Antiquity  of  Classes.  Humanity  had  not  gone 
very  far  on  the  path  from  savagery  before  it  was  divided 
into  many  classes.  Tribes,  kingdoms,  empires,  city- 
states,  and  republics  all  had  classes.  First  of  all 
were  the  priests,  who  had  charge  of  the  religious  cere- 
monies. Next  were  the  nobles,  who  united  with 


THE   GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY  57 

pride  of  birth  the  ownership  of  cattle  and  land  in 
large  amounts.  Then  there  were  the  merchants,  who 
traded  far  and  wide,  carrying  goods  from  one  section 
of  a  country  to  another  and  even  from  nation  to  nation. 
Below  the  merchants  were  the  small  farmers  and  the 
skilled  artisans -- the  metal  workers,  stone  cutters, 
and  other  wielders  of  tools.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
scale  were  the  serfs  and  slaves,  bound  fast  to  the  soil 
they  tilled  or  to  the  master  who  owned  them. 

Sometimes    these    classes    were    united    in    defense 


Metropolitan  Museum 
A  MODEL  OF  AN  EGYPTIAN  PALACE 

against  a  foreign  invader.  Sometimes  they  engaged 
in  struggles  among  themselves  over  the  division  of 
land  and  cattle.  Many  a  time  did  the  slaves  rise  in 
terrible  rebellion  against  their  masters,  only  to  meet, 
usually,  with  equally  terrible  punishment. 

The  Nobles.  Whether  we  turn  to  ancient  Egypt, 
Greece,  or  Rome  we  find  a  class  of  wealthy  and  power- 
ful landowners  —  men  who  held  great  estates  tilled 
by  slaves  or  bondmen  of  some  kind.  The  fields  of 


58  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

the  Nile  Valley  were  laid  out  into  immense  farms,  each 
owned  by  a  noble.  To-day,  historians  dig  up  the 
ruins  of  their  fine  houses,  visit  their  tombs,  and  read 
such  of  their  books  as  have  escaped  the  ravages  of 
time. 

From  the  earliest  days  there  existed  in  Athens  and 
in  Rome  a  class  in  most  respects  similar  to  the  nobles 
of  Egypt.  In  Rome,  for  instance,  the  most  influential 
men  were  the  nobles,  owners  of  estates  and  members 
of  distinguished  families.  The  nobles  were  proud  of 
their  rank  and  looked  upon  themselves  and  their 
ancestors  as  superior  beings.  They  were  entitled  to 
wear  the  purple  stripe  on  their  garments  to  mark  them 
off  from  the  common  people  and  slaves.  In  the  later 
days  of  the  republic,  when  Rome  had  become  rich, 
the  nobles  by  birth  found  themselves  rudely  elbowed 
by  men  who  had  made  great  fortunes  in  trade  and 
politics — men  who  "  broke  into  "  the  nobility  by  one 
method  or  another. 

All  Italy  was  dotted  with  the  fine  houses  and  estates 
of  Roman  nobles.  The  house  of  one  of  them,  we  are 
told,  had  more  "  rooms  than  many  cities  embrace 
within  their  walls."  These  palaces  were  decorated 
with  beautiful  marbles  and  statues  brought  from 
Greece,  Asia,  and  Egypt.  The  families  that  dwelt  in 
them  were  waited  on  by  slaves  and  their  lands  were 
tilled  by  slaves.  They  themselves  scorned  trading 
and  all  kinds  of  manual  labor,  and  would  do  nothing 
except  hold  a  government  office  or  a  command  in  the 


THE   GREAT   NATIONS   OF  ANTIQUITY  59 

army.  Eager  to  enlarge  their  holdings,  the  nobles  bought 
up  or  seized  the  lands  of  the  small  farmers.  In  the  later 
days  of  the  empire  all  Italy  was  a  collection  of  huge 
estates  worked  by  slave  labor. 

The  Farmers.  In  several  of  the  Greek  states  and  in 
early  Rome  there  were  many  farmers  who  owned 
small  farms  and  tilled  them  with  their  own  hands. 
The  plebeians,  as  these  commoners  were  called  at  Rome, 
were  citizens,  but  at  first  their  rights  were  limited. 
They  could  vote  in  the  assembly,  but  they  could  not 
hold  high  office.  Though  the  king  might  transform  a 
plebeian  into  a  noble,  marriage  between  the  nobles 
and  the  plebeians  was  forbidden. 

Many  and  long  were  the  conflicts  between  these 
two  classes  in  Rome,  until  in  the  later  days  the  dis- 
tinctions between  the  two  were  nearly  all  abolished. 
Plebeians  were  permitted  to  marry  nobles,  and  most 
of  the  offices  were  opened  to  them. 

For  a  long  time,  the  Roman  farmers  were  able  to 
hold  their  own.  It  was  believed  that  the  stalwart 
farmer,  who  left  the  plow  to  fight  the  battles  of  Rome, 
was  the  best  kind  of  citizen.  "  Farmers  furnish  the  brav- 
est men  and  ablest  soldiers,"  wrote  the  Roman  Cato 
"  No  other  calling  is  so  honorable,  safe,  and  pleasant 
as  this  is."  Efforts  were  sometimes  made  to  multiply 
the  number  of  farmers  by  breaking  up  great  estates 
into  small  plots.  Especially  was  it  a  common  practice 
to  grant  farms  to  returning  soldiers  —  a  kind  of  reward 
or  bonus.  As  in  the  early  days  of  the  United  States, 


60  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

it  was  said  that  Rome  was  rich  enough  to  give  every 
man  a  farm. 

In  the  course  of  time,  however,  the  number  of  free 
farmers  became  smaller  and  smaller.  Their  lands 
were  often  bought  or  seized  by  the  nobles  and  changed 
into  estates  tilled  by  slaves.  Many  of  them  perished 
in  battle.  Thousands,  unable  to  compete  with  slaves, 
drifted  to  the  city  of  Rome  or  sank  into  the  position 
of  bondmen  on  the  vast  estates.  As  the  republic 
gained  new  territories,  it  became  the  practice  to  grant 
the  lands  in  huge  plots  to  generals  and  politicians. 
A  Roman  writer  tells  us,  for  example,  that  six  Romans 
owned  half  the  province  of  Carthage  and  that  the 
peasants  of  Africa  were  a  wretched  lot.  He  adds  that 
he  saw  an  ass  and  a  woman  harnessed  together  to  drag 
a  peasant's  plow. 

The  Artisans  or  Skilled  Workmen.  In  Athens  and 
in  Rome,  as  indeed  in  all  the  cities  of  the  ancient  world, 
there  were  hosts  of  skilled  workmen  who  were  free  in 
the  sense  that  the  small  farmers  were  free.  Along  with 
them  were  found  also  numerous  day  laborers.  When 
the  city  of  Rome  became  the  center  of  a  great  empire, 
there  were  perhaps  500,000  people  within  its  gates, 
of  whom  probably  one  half  were  free.  They  usually 
lived  in  huge  apartment  houses,  each  family  having  a 
few  dark  rooms  in  a  great  building. 

As  the  number  of  slaves  who  could  do  skilled  work 
increased,  the  free  artisan  found  it  difficult  to  make  a 
living.  Often  he  sank  to  the  level  of  a  beggar,  haunting 


THE  GREAT  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY  61 

the  streets  of  the  city.  In  both  Athens  and  Rome, 
the  free  workman  was  regarded  with  contempt  by  the 
upper  classes.  Aristotle,  the  Greek  philosopher,  de- 
clared that  "  no  man  can  practise  virtue  who  is  living 
the  life  of  a  mechanic  or  laborer."  Cicero,  the  Roman 
orator,  looked  upon  workmen  as  belonging  to  an  in- 
ferior order,  saying  with  scorn,  "  A  workshop  can  have 
nothing  respectable  about  it." 

Merchants  and  Professional  Classes.  Athens  and 
Rome,  like  Egypt  and  Phoenicia  before  them,  developed 
trading  to  a  high  pitch.  Their  ships  plowed  all  the 
waters  of  the  Mediterranean  and  in  their  markets  were 
found  traders  from  every  clime.  In  addition  to  com- 
merce, there  were  other  ways  of  making  money.  Tax- 
gathering  was  a  very  profitable  business,  for  the  pub- 
licans, or  tax-gatherers,  were  permitted  by  law  to 
gather  about  all  they  could  wring  from  the  people. 
Money-lending  was  also  profitable.  So  was  office- 
holding  in  Rome  and  in  her  provinces.  Though 
merchants  and  bankers  grew  rich,  the  aristocracy  con- 
tinued to  look  upon  them  with  scorn.  Cicero  thought 
all  retail  merchants  contemptible  "  because  they  can 
make  no  profit  except  by  a  certain  amount  of  false- 
hood." Aristotle  exclaimed  that  in  the  life  of  a  mer- 
chant "  there  is  no  room  for  moral  excellence."  Never- 
theless, impoverished  noblemen  were  often  glad  to 
marry  their  daughters  to  the  sons  of  rich  traders  or 
money-lenders. 

Somewhat  above  the  trading  classes  in   the  eyes  of 


62 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


the  Roman  aristocracy  were  the  professional  classes  ; 
but  they  too  were  of  every  degree.  First  among  them, 
in  the  heyday  of  the  Roman  empire,  were  the  archi- 
tects and  engineers,  the  men  who  planned  and  built 


From  an  old  print 


A  ROMAN  BRIDGE  NEAR  NIMES  (FRANCE) 


the  amphitheaters,  palaces,  and  bridges.  Musicians 
were  in  great  demand  for  entertainments,  public  and 
private.  Doctors,  owing  to  the  number  of  fraudulent 
fellows,  or  "  quacks,"  had  a  hard  time  to  win  the  esteem 
of  the  people.  Some  of  them,  however,  rose  to  emi- 
nence. Such,  for  example,  was  Galen,  who  lived  at 
the  end  of  the  second  century  after  Christ.  He  was 
so  famous  that  people  from  the  ends  of  the  empire 


THE    GREAT    NATIONS    OF    ANTIQUITY  63 

wrote  him  for  advice  and  he  told  them  by  letter  what 
medicine  to  take.  Poets,  historians,  and  teachers  were 
frequently  honored  for  their  talents. 

In  many  cases,  however,  in  the  later  days  of  Rome, 
the  teacher  was  a  slave  in  the  house  of  the  rich  aristo- 
crat. Roman  noblemen  took  pride  in  importing  from 
Greece  educated  slaves  as  tutors  for  their  children, 
or  as  reciters  to  amuse  their  guests.  Some  of  the  dis- 
tinguished writers  of  Rome  were  of  this  servile  origin. 

The  Slaves.  The  masses  of  people  among  all  the 
great  nations  of  antiquity  were  slaves.  Slaves  built 
the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  rowed  the  warships  of  Athens, 
and  tilled  the  fields  of  Italy.  The  history  of  labor  in 
antiquity  is  largely  a  history  of  bondage.  As  Rome 
grew,  slavery  multiplied.  When  the  Romans  conquered 
Italy,  Greece,  Africa,  Gaul,  Spain,  Britain,  and  parts 
of  Germany,  they  brought  the  captives  into  Rome 
by  the  thousands  as  slaves.  It  is  estimated  that 
Caesar  in  his  conquest  of  Gaul  took  a  million  prisoners 
who  were  sold  into  bondage.  In  the  slave  markets 
of  Rome  could  be  found  white-skinned  Greeks  and 
Germans  penned  up  with  swarthy  Africans. 

Those  who  were  sold  as  domestic  servants  usually 
had  a  fairly  easy  life ;  but  most  of  them  passed  into  a 
servitude  on  the  great  estates  that  was  truly  horrible. 
They  were  worked  in  the  fields  in  chain  gangs  and 
thrown  into  dungeons  at  night.  The  owner  had  the 
power  of  life  and  death  over  his  slaves.  Those  who 
resisted  their  masters  or  ran  away  were  frequently 


64  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

crucified  along  the  highways  as  terrible  examples  to 
their  fellows.  Toward  the  latter  days  of  the  empire, 
Italy  was  crowded  with  slaves  and  the  descendants  of 
slaves.  Thousands  of  them  had  been  freed  by  their 
masters.  Some  of  them  rose  to  positions  of  wealth  and 
influence.  Others  swarmed  into  the  cities,  where  they 
helped  to  swell  the  mobs  so  famous  in  Roman  history. 

THE  GREAT  CITIES  OF  ANTIQUITY 

All  the  nations  of  antiquity  had  their  great  cities  : 
Thebes  and  Memphis  in  Egypt,  Nineveh  on  the  Tigris, 
Babylon  on  the  Euphrates,  Jerusalem  in  Palestine, 
Tyre  and  Sidon  in  Phoenicia,  Athens  in  Greece,  Rome 
in  Italy,  and  Carthage  and  Utica  in  northern  Africa. 
In  the  Bible  we  can  read  graphic  accounts  of  the 
mighty  cities  of  the  East.  The  populations  of  these 
ancient  places  we  can  only  guess,  for  there  was  no 
regular  census  such  as  we  have  to-day.  Rome  in  its 
prime,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  60),  had  about  500,000 
people  within  its  borders.  Perhaps  Babylon  was  even 
larger. 

The  splendor  of  some  of  the  cities  dazzled  all 
visitors.  Babylon  had  its  palace  of  terraces,  rising 
one  above  another,  and  its  "  hanging  gardens."  It 
was  reckoned  by  the  Greeks  as  one  of  "  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world."  In  all  the  cities,  temples,  pal- 
aces, baths,  wonderful  official  buildings,  stores,  and 
the  luxurious  homes  of  the  rich  testified  to  their  wealth 
and  magnifience. 


THE    GREAT   NATIONS   OF   ANTIQUITY  65 

Some  of  these  cities  have  utterly  vanished.  Of 
Babylon  nothing  can  be  seen  to-day  except  a  few  frag- 
ments of  ancient  walls  and  heaps  of  bricks  crumbling 
into  dust.  Others  have  had  continuous  life.  Athens 
is  the  capital  of  modern  Greece,  and  many  a  stately 
ruin  remains  to  tell  of  ancient  days.  Rome  is  the 


THE  RUINS  OF  THE  COLOSSEUM,  THE  GREAT  AMPHITHEATER  AT  ROME 

capital  of  modern  Italy.  The  palaces  of  the  emperors 
are  no  more,  but  some  noble  buildings  remain  intact 
to  this  very  hour. 

The  Romans  were  indeed  the  master  builders  of 
antiquity.  Their  capital  city  was  the  wonder  of  man- 
kind. Around  the  Forum,  or  ancient  market  place, 
they  erected  public  buildings,  imperial  palaces,  beauti- 
ful temples,  and  splendid  monuments.  All  over  their 


66  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

broad  empire  the  Romans  built  magnificent  cities. 
At  Aries  and  Orange,  in  southern  France,  are  to  be 
found  to-day  splendid  ruins  that  are  visited  annually 
by  hundreds  of  Americans,  curious  to  see  the  signs  of 
Rome's  world  power.  London  stands  on  the  site  of 
an  old  Roman  city,  and  here  and  there  may  be  found 
a  bit  of  wall  or  pavement  that  has  escaped  destruction. 
So,  too,  in  Paris  the  traveler  may  see  fragments  of 
walls  and  arches  and  baths  that  have  come  down  from 
the  day  when  France  was  Gaul,  a  province  of  the 
Roman  empire. 

It  is  in  the  cities  of  antiquity  that  we  find  much  that 
resembles  modern  times._  There  were  immense  public 
buildings,  monuments  erected  in  honor  of  victorious 
generals,  banking  houses  in  which  business  was  carried 
on  with  the  most  distant  countries,  and  huge  theaters 
for  public  amusements.  There  great  throngs  gathered 
in  the  streets  to  cheer  returning  soldiers  or  to  hear 
the  news  of  some  momentous  event  in  a  far-off  country. 
There  were  the  tenements  of  the  poor  and  the  man- 
sions of  the  rich,  the  artisan  working  at  the  flaming 
forge,  the  women  buying  at  the  market,  and  the  politi- 
cian stirring  the  masses  by  an  impassioned  oration 
on  some  burning  question  of  the  day. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  Why  can  more  people  live  in  a  country  where  farming 
is  practiced  than  in  one  where  hunting  and  fishing  must  be  de- 


THE    GREAT    NATIONS    OF    ANTIQUITY  67 

pended  upon  for  obtaining  food  ?  2.  So  far  as  we  know,  the 
first  great  nations  grew  up  in  the  fertile  valleys  of  the  Nile  and  the 
Euphrates  rivers,  though  the  lands  adjoining  these  valleys  are  very 
largely  arid  ;  are  there  any  reasons  why  such  conditions  should  have 
been  favorable  to  the  development  of  these  regions  as  the  homes 
of  people  engaged  in  farming  ?  There  are  no  great  forests  in  these 
river  valleys  ;  how  did  this  help  the  farmers  ?  3.  The  Nile  River 
overflows  its  banks  each  year  and  the  water  spreads  over  its  valley  ; 
in  what  ways  would  this  be  an  advantage  to  farming  ?  Why  were 
people  living  under  such  conditions  likely  to  be  united  under  strong 
and  powerful  leaders?  4.  What  is  meant  by  a  "despot"? 
5.  Why  do  we  know  more  about  the  wars  and  conquests  of  the 
ancient  kings  than  we  do  about  the  millions  of  people  whom  they 
ruled?  6.  The  text  mentions  the  "Pharaohs"  as  the  rulers 
of  ancient  Egypt ;  what  other  terms  have  been  used  by  different 
countries  for  their  rulers  ?' 

II.  i.  How  did  the  ancient  Greeks  differ  from  the  people 
of  the  Nile  and  Euphrates  valleys  in  their  manner  of  living  ? 
In  government  ?  2.  How  did  the  democratic  government  of 
Athens  differ  from  our  democratic  government  ?  3.  Do  the  people 
of  your  town  or  city  meet  together  to  decide  directly  any  ques- 
tions of  government  ?  How  many  years  elapsed  between  the 
supposed  date  of  the  first  Egyptian  kings  (5000  B.C.)  and  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great  (323  B.C.)  ?  How  many  years  be- 
tween the  death  of  Alexander  and  the  present  time  ?  4.  What 
was  the  form  of  government  in  Rome  in  the  early  days  of  its 
history?  What  changes  took  place  later?  5.  How  many  years 
elapsed  between  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  death 
of  Julius  Caesar  ?  6.  What  changes  took  place  in  the  way  in 
which  the  Romans  lived  as  they  passed  from  the  rule  of  kings  to 
the  rule  of  the  people  and  then  to  the  rule  of  emperors  ? 
7.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  to  explain  why  the  great 
Roman  empire  failed  to  endure.  8.  The  close  of  the  Roman 
empire  is  usually  placed  at  476  A.D.  ;  how  long  was  this  after 


68  OUR   OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

the  first  date  that  we  associate  with  Rome  (753  B.C.)  ?  How 
does  this  compare  with  the  number  of  years  that  our  present 
government  has  been  in  existence  ? 

III.  I.  We  have  in  our  country  to-day  priests  or  clergymen, 
large  landowners,  merchants,  farmers,  skilled  workmen,  and  un- 
skilled laborers;  why  are  these  groups  not  "classes"  in  the  sense 
in  which  this  word  is  used  in  the  text  ?  t  2.  We  do  not  have  in 
our  country  "  nobles,"  "  serfs,"  or  "  slaves  "  ;  name  those  countries 
in  which  there  is  still  a  class  of  "nobles."  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  "serf"  and  a  "slave"?  3.  What  occupations  that 
are  highly  respected  to-day  were  looked  down  upon  as  ignoble  or 
dishonorable  by  the  ancients?  4.  In  what  ways  are  the  great 
masses  of  people  better  off  to-day  than  were  the  masses  of  the 
people  in  ancient  times?  5.  While  some  of  the  ancient  cities 
were  large,  probably  none  was  so  large  as  are  such  modern  cities 
as  London,  New  York,  Chicago,  or  Paris ;  can  you  think  of  any 
reason  explaining  why  such  very  large  cities  were  probably  impos- 
sible in  the  ancient  world  ?  (Consider  the  problem  of  feeding  so 
many  people  and  the  ways  unknown  to  the  ancients  that  we  now 
have  of  producing  foodstuffs,  and  especially  of  transporting  food- 
stuffs quickly  over  long  distances.) 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

I.  I.  Study  carefully  the  maps  showing  the  location  of  the  Nile 
and  Euphrates  valleys.  Note  how  the  Nile  Valley  is  protected. 
Where  does  the  Nile  River  rise  ?  Trace  the  courses  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates.  When  history  began,  these  two  rivers  flowed  into 
the  Persian  Gulf  separately.  Eridu  (p.  46)  was  then  a  seaport. 
2.  Study  the  map  of  Greece  (p.  48),  and  point  out  some  important 
differences  between  this  region  and  the  regions  of  the  Nile  and 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  What  advantages  would  the  Greeks 
have  in  a  country  such  as  theirs  ?  Why  was  the  country  favor- 
able to  the  development  of  small  city-states  rather  than  to  the 
development  of  a  united  kingdom  or  empire  ?  Locate  Athens, 


THE    GREAT    NATIONS    OF    ANTIQUITY  69 

Sparta,  Corinth,  Thebes,  Miletus.  3.  Point  out  the  extent  of 
the  Greek  empire  that  was  formed  by  Alexander  the  Great  and 
endured  only  while  he  lived.  4.  Locate  Rome.  Why  was  Rome 
admirably  situated  to  be  the  center  of  a  great  empire  ?  (Note  the 
ease  with  which  the  various  parts  of  the  Mediterranean  basin 
could  be  reached  by  boats.)  5.  Locate  the  regions  that  the 
Romans  gradually  conquered  :  Carthage,  Greece,  Gaul  (France), 
Spain,  Britain  (England),  Egypt,  Asia  Minor.  6.  Locate  the 
great  cities  of  antiquity  mentioned  on  p.  64.  Find  out  which 
of  these  exist  under  their  old  names.  Which  of  them  occupy  the 
sites  under  new  names  ?  Which  of  them  no  longer  exist  except  as 
ruins  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 
FOR  PUPILS 

ARNOLD,  EMMA  J.  —  Stories  of  Ancient  Peoples ;  American  Book. 
ASHLEY,  R.  L.  —  Early  European  Civilization,  i-iii ;    Macmillan. 
BEST,  S.  M.  —  Egypt  and  Her  Neighbors;  Macmillan. 
BROOKSBANK,  F.  H.  —  Stories  of  Egyptian  Gods  and  Heroes;  Crowell. 
GOSSE,  A.  B.  —  The  Civilization  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians;   Stokes. 
VAN  LOON,  HENDRIK  W. — Ancient  Man;    Boni  and  Liveright. 

The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  v-xxvi. 
WELLS,  M.  E.  —  How  the  Present  Came  from  the  Past,  Book  I. 

FOR  TEACHERS 

See    bibliographies    at    close   of    Chapters   ii  and  iii  in  BOTS- 
FORD'S  A  Brief  History  of  the  World;  Macmillan. 


CHAPTER   IV 
THE   CULTURE   OF   THE  ANCIENT  NATIONS 

THE  peoples  of  the  ancient  world  did  more  than  found 
great  cities,  states,  and  empires.  They  carried  for- 
ward the  work  of  civilization  begun  by  primitive  men 
and  women.  They  improved  the  old  ways  of  tilling 
the  soil.  They  raised  a  greater  variety  of  fruits, 
grains,  and  vegetables.  They  raised  better  sheep  and 
cattle.  They  built  solid  and  handsome  houses.  They 
made  beautiful  drawings,  paintings,  and  sculptures. 
They  erected  wonderful  temples  and  public  buildings. 
They  brought  many  of  the  domestic  arts  to  a  high  state 
of  perfection.  They  learned  how  to  prepare  and  cook 
excellent  food  and  to  make  fine  linens,  embroideries, 
laces,  and  brocades.  For  sheer  beauty  their  work  has 
never  been  surpassed,  and  seldom  equaled.  They 
studied  the  heavens  and  made  the  beginnings  of  the 
science  of  astronomy.  They  studied  the  ways  of 
nature  and  thought  deeply  about  right  conduct. 
They  wrote  poems,  books,  and  plays.  They  wor- 
shiped gods  and  had  religious  rites.  Finally,  they 
came  to  the  idea  of  one  God,  all-powerful  and  all-wise ; 
and  one  of  the  peoples  of  antiquity,  the  Jews,  also  gave 

to  mankind  Christianity. 

70 


THE   CULTURE   OF  THE   ANCIENT  NATIONS  71 

In  the  practical  arts,  such  as  domestic  science  and 
agriculture,  the  peoples  of  the  ancient  world  made 
definite  strides  in  advance  of  primitive  life.  In  the 
fine  arts,  like  architecture  and  sculpture,  they  pro- 
duced examples  which  the  best  artists  of  all  later  ages 
in  the  Western  civilization  admired  and  studied  closely. 
In  poetry,  drama,  oratoiy,  and  philosophy,  they  worked 
out  such  perfect  models  that  all  the  world  still  marvels 
at  them.  Although  our  progress  has  been  wonderful 
in  material  things,  although  we  have  the  railway  and 
the  airplane,  in  all  things  of  the  mind  we  still  have 
much  to  learn  from  the  ancients.  The  English  poet, 
Shelley,  said  of  Greece  : 

Her  citizens,  imperial  spirits, 
Rule  the  present  from  the  past ; 
On  all  this  world  of  men  inherits 
Their  seal  is  set. 

Those  writers  are  nearer  the  truth,  however,  who  tell 
us  that  the  Jews  gave  to  the  world  religion,  the  Greeks 
art  and  literature,  and  the  Romans  law  and  order. 
Even  there  we  must  not  draw  sharp  dividing  lines 
between  the  ancient  nations,  because  they  borrowed 
so  much  from  one  another.  For  a  long  time  after  Rome 
fell,  the  people  of  western  Europe  knew  no  ancient 
language  but  that  of  the  Romans,  Latin.  So  they 
read  mainly  about  what  the  Romans  had  done.  Hence 
it  was  easy  to  give  too  much  weight  to  the  work  of 
the  Romans.  About  the  day  of  Columbus,  scholars 
began  to  study  Greek  with  great  earnestness ;  then 


72  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

they  declared  that  the  Greeks  had  done  everything. 
Long  centuries  afterward,  indeed  almost  within  our 
own  time,  scholars  learned  to  read  the  queer  sign 
writing  used  by  the  still  older  Egyptians  and  Babylo- 
nians. Then  they  found  out  how  deep  was  the  debt 
of  both  Greece  and  Rome  to  nations  thousands  of  years 
older  than  either  of  them.  The  life  and  thought  of 
America  are  really  linked  in  an  unbroken  chain  with 
the  life  and  thought  of  people  whose  homes  and  palaces 
were  dust  for  ten  centuries  before  Rome  rose  to  great- 
ness on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber. 

THE  PRACTICAL  ARTS 

Agriculture.     In  tilling  the   soil,    as   we   have   said, 
the    ancients    made    remarkable    advances    over    the 


Metropolitan  Museum 

AN  EGYPTIAN  PICTURE  SHOWING  PLOWING  AND  SOWING 

methods  followed  by  primitive  people.  They  learned 
to  irrigate  dry  lands.  Perhaps  they  got  the  idea  from 
the  annual  flooding  of  the  Nile  River.  At  all  events, 
in  both  the  Nile  Valley  and  the  Euphrates  Valley,  there 
were  great  irrigation  works.  The  ancients  also  dis- 
covered the  secret  of  fertilizers  to  enrich  the  soil. 
This  enabled  them  to  cultivate  one  spot  for  centuries. 


THE   CULTURE  OF  THE  ANCIENT   NATIONS  73 

Thus  they  could  give  up  wandering  in  search  of  new 
lands,  and  could  support  large  populations  in  a  rela- 
tively small  area.  They  also  discovered  the  secret  of 
plowing  and  harrowing  the  ground  so  as  to  break  it 
into  fine  powder.  This,  too,  increased  the  production 
per  acre. 

The  ancients  discovered  many  aids  to  agriculture. 
They  tamed  the  ox,  the  horse,  and  the  ass.  They  in- 
vented plows,  harrows,  and  carts  that  were  dragged 
by  their  beasts  of  burden.  They  built  granaries  in 
which  to  store  their  crops.  They  made  knives  or 
sickles  to  cut  the  grain.  They  used  the  ox  to  tread 
out  the  grain  and  they  winnowed  it,  or  separated  the 
chaff  from  the  grain,  by  tossing  it  into  the  air.  For 
grinding  the  grain  they  made  heavy  stone  mills,  which 
were  turned  by  slaves  or  oxen. 

The  ancients  increased  their  food  supply  in  many 
ways.  They  domesticated  more  animals,  such  as 
swine,  sheep,  ducks,  geese,  and  cows.  They  learned 
to  handle  the  wild  bee  and  secure  vast  quantities 
of  honey.  They  grew  peas  and  beans  as  well  as  rye 
and  wheat.  The  plains  of  Italy  and  the  fertile  valleys 
of  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates  were  the  great  grain- 
growing  areas  of  the  ancient  world.  In  the  rougher 
and  more  mountainous  regions  of  Italy,  Greece,  and 
Palestine,  vineyards  and  olive  orchards  flourished. 

The  Domestic  Arts.  In  all  the  home  comforts,  the 
ancients  made  great  gains  over  primitive  peoples 
who  lived  in  caves  or  tents,  or  in  brush  and  timber 


74  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

huts.  They  learned  how  to  build  stone  houses.  The 
nobles  and  rich  men  had  wonderful  palaces  with  baths 
and  hot-air  furnaces.  The  homes  of  the  masses  were 
very  much  like  some  to  be  seen  to-day  in  Italy  or 
Greece.  They  were  of  stone  and  plaster,  with  flat 
roofs.  There  were  no  glass  windows,  but  there  were 
doors  and  wooden  shutters.  The  floors  were  of  stone 


Metropolitan  Museum 

SOME  PLAIN  EGYPTIAN  FURNITURE 

or  dirt.     But  they    had  one  great  advantage  —  they 
were  cool  in  summer. 

The  art  of  cooking  —  bread-making,  roasting,  bak- 
ing, and  stewing  —  was  so  improved  over  primitive 
times  that  delicacies  could  be  made  for  those  who 
could  afford  them.  Bread  was  the  staff  of  life.  Wine 
and  olive  oil  came  next  in  the  diet  of  the  masses.  Fruit, 
fish,  meats,  and  honey  appeared  on  the  best  tables. 
But  as  the  ancients  ate  with  their  fingers,  they  did  not 
have  sauces  and  desserts  like  ours.  Indeed,  it  has  been 
said  that  sauces  mark  the  great  difference  between 
modern  and  ancient  cookery. 


THE   CULTURE  OF  THE  ANCIENT   NATIONS  75 

In  cloth-making,  the  ancients  have  never  been  sur- 
passed. In  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  New  York 
City,  there  are  linen  sheets,  taken  from  ancient  Egyptian 
tombs,  which  have  lasted  all  through  these  centuries. 
The  Egyptians  pictured  their  goddess,  Isis,  with  a 


Metropolitan  At  useum 

AN  INLAID  ROMAN  SEAT  OF  THE  FIRST  CENTURY  AFTER  CHRIST 

shuttle  in  her  hand  ;  and  the  Romans  pictured  their 
goddess,  Minerva,  with  a  distaff  for  spinning,  showing 
how  greatly  they  prized  the  work  of  their  women. 
On  the  walls  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  as  well  as  of 
other  ancient  cities,  there  were  pictures  illustrating  the 


76 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


cloth-making  process  all  the  way  from  the  raising  of 
sheep  and  the  growth  of  flax  to  spinning  and  weaving. 
The  ancients  did  more  than  make  fine  cloth.  They 
made  beautiful  designs,  wonderful  tapestries,  and 
embroideries.  Especially  in  the  lands  of  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  did  the  love  of  gorgeous  decorations 
flourish. 

Owing  to  the  mildness  of  their  climate,  the  ancients 
spent  much  of  their  time  out  of  doors.  They  got  up 
early  and  went  to  bed  early,  as  they  had  no  brilliant 

lights  for  the  house. 
Since  they  were  an 
out-of-door  people, 
they  did  not  make 
as  many  kinds  of 
furniture  as  we  do 
to-day.  They  had 
chairs,  couches, 
beds,  and  tables, 
though  they  were 
by  no  means  as 
comfortable  as 
ours.  For  what 
they  lacked  in  com- 
fort and  variety, 
they  made  up  in 
decoration.  The  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  and  Jews 
made  wooden  furniture,  using  much  cedar  and  ebony 
and  probably  rosewood,  walnut,  and  teak.  They 


Metropolitan  Museum 
EGYPTIAN  JEWELRY 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  NATIONS          77 

decorated  their  tables  and  chairs  by  inlaying  the 
wood  with  gold,  silver,  ivory,  and  precious  stones. 
The  Greeks  employed  bronze  in  making  furniture, 
adding  decorations  of  gold  and  silver.  All  these  things 
the  Romans  had  also ;  but  they  were  especially  fond 
of  beautiful  marbles. 

Most  of  our  ornaments  of  to-day  originated  among 
the  ancients.  They  had  necklaces,  rings,  bracelets, 
brooches,  earrings,  diadems,  mirrors,  combs,  and  jewel 
boxes.  Their  work  in  precious  stones  and  metals  was 
so  good  that  modern  workers  find  it  hard  to  equal 
it  and  cannot  surpass  it.  Ancient  artists  could  carve, 
solder,  inlay,  cast,  and  chisel  with  a  subtle  skill  and  a 
fine  taste  that  make  us  marvel  as  we  look  upon  their 
work. 

ARCHITECTURE  AND  ART 

Egyptian  and  Babylonian  Architecture.     We  do  not 

know  what  people  it  was  that  first  came  out  of  caves 
and  huts  and  learned  to  build  houses  of  stone  and  brick. 
We  do  know,  however,  that  very  early  in  their,  history 
the  Egyptians  learned  how  to  plan  and  erect  great 
buildings.  The  pyramids,  the  towering  tombs  of  their 
kings,  and  their  temples  have  stood  through  thousands 
of  years  to  bear  witness  to  their  skill.  Moreover,  they 
learned  to  decorate  their  buildings  and  to  carve  at 
the  gates  gigantic  figures  in  stone. 

Of  the  buildings  erected  by  the  ancient  peoples  to 
the  east  of  the  Mediterranean,  we  know  less,  because 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  NATIONS          79 

they  used  so  much  wood  and  unburnt  brick  which  did 
not  survive  the  wear  and  tear  of  centuries.  Of  their 
work  we  can  only  read  in  the  books  that  have  come 
down  to  us.  Accounts  of  Babylon,  for  instance,  tell 
us  of  buildings  huge  in  size  and  gorgeous  in  design, 
such  as  the  Temple  of  Baal,  greater  even  than  the 
pyramids.  They  tell  of  "  wonderful  walls  around  the 
city,  and  the  hang- 
ing gardens  of  Semir- 
amis."  In  the  Old 
Testament,  we  can 
read  of  the  beautiful 
tombs  arid  temples 
of  the  Jews.  In  the 
third  chapter  of  the 
second  book  of  the 
Chronicles,  there  is  Metropolitan  Museum 

an      account      of      the  THE  TOP  OF  AN  EGYPTIAN  COLUMN 

temple,  or  "House  of  God,"  built  by  Solomon  at  Jeru- 
salem. It  was  ceiled  with  fir,  overlaid  with  gold,  "  gar- 
nished with  precious  stones  for  beauty,"  and  decorated 
with  carvings  and  ornaments.  Of  this  temple  not  a  stone 
or  sign  remains.  So  we  can  only  behold  its  beauty  in 
the  mind's  eye  as  we  read  of  it  in  the  Bible. 

Greek  Architecture.  We  know  a  great  deal  more 
about  the  architecture  of  the  Greeks.  Examples  of 
their  work  and  many  splendid  ruins  are  scattered  far 
and  wide  in  Mediterranean  lands.  The  most  beautiful 
as  well  as  the  most  enduring  work  of  the  Greek  archi- 


80  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

tects  was  the  temple.  It  was  small  in  size,  simple  in 
form,  straight  in  line,  and  designed  to  house  the  statues 
of  one  or  more  gods.  Only  a  few  could  worship  at  a 
time  within  the  gloomy  shadows  of  its  narrow  chamber. 
That,  however,  suited  the  Greek  kind  of  religion,  as 
we  shall  see. 

Several  of  these  temples  still  stand,  preserving  to 
this  day  their  delicate  columns  and  graceful  lines. 
The  most  perfect  temple  is  at  Athens.  There  is  another 
fine  structure  at  Paestum,  near  Naples  in  Italy,  erected 
there  by  an  ancient  Greek  colony.  The  Greeks  also 
built  tombs  and  theaters  ;  but  on  none  of  these  struc- 
tures did  they  lavish  such  care  and  affection  as  on  the 
temples. 

Roman  Architecture.  The  Romans  copied  directly 
from  the  Greeks.  They  early  adopted  the  Greek 
temple,  along  with  the  Greek  gods,  but  they  added  to 
both.  The  majestic  Pantheon  of  Rome,  erected  to  all 
their  chief  gods,  combines  a  Greek  porch  and  columns 
with  a  huge  structure  surmounted  by  a  mighty  dome. 
This  building  has  stood  about  1800  years  almost  intact. 

In  other  ways,  too,  the  Romans  added  to  the  designs 
of  the  Greeks.  Their  special  creations  were  vast  amphi- 
theaters, circuses,  triumphal  arches,  palaces,  aqueducts, 
baths,  and  civic  buildings.  They  learned  somewhere 
how  to  make  strong  mortar  and  to  build  arches.  With 
the  arch  they  were  able  to  erect  buildings  of  great 
height  and  size.  When  men  can  only  pile  blocks  of 
stone  and  wood  upon  one  another,  their  designs  are 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  NATIONS 


81 


limited ;  when  they  can  use  the  arch  and  mortar, 
even  the  very  stones  become  almost  as  clay  in  their 
hands.  With  lavish  profusion  the  Romans  erected 
huge  buildings  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of 
their  empire.  The  gigantic  amphitheater,  or  Colos- 
seum, opened  80  A.D.,  had,  when  completed,  seats  for 
more  than  40,000  people.  It  was  about  600  feet 
long  and  500  feet  wide.  Its  outer  rim  stood  more 
than  150  feet  above  the  ground.  So  solid  was  its 
masonry  that  most  of  its  walls 
and  arches  have  survived  the 
ravages  of  earthquakes  and  time. 

Size,  mass,  and  strength  marked 
the  work  of  the  Romans  ;  but  they 
sought  for  beauty  also.  They 
robbed  Greece  of  her  marbles  and 
statuary;  they  brought  monu- 
ments from  ancient  Egypt;  and 
they  collected  artists  and  sculp- 
tors from  the  ends  of  the  empire. 
As  they  became  rich,  they  em- 
ployed Greeks  for  delicate  work 
and  drew  upon  the  Orientals  for 
gorgeous  colors. 

Art  under  the  Oriental  Despots. 
The  Egyptians,  from  the  earliest 
day  of  which  we  have  record,  drew, 

,  .          _,,  .  Metropolitan  Museum. 

painted,  and  carved.      1  he  themes 

.  ,      AN  EXAMPLE  OF  THE  BEST 

and  forms  of  their  art   remained        EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 


82  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

much  the  same  for  thousands  of  years,  almost  as 
fixed  as  the  character  of  the  Nile  Valley  in  which 
they  lived.  Art  was  not  free.  That  is,  artists  did 
not  draw  and  paint  and  carve  whatever  pleased 
their  fancy.  The  greatest  artists  were  employed  by 
the  ruler,  or  despot,  to  glorify  him,  to  picture  his  life 
and  his  deeds.  They  showed  him  in  war,  on  the  hunt, 
at  the  court,  and  in  public  ceremonies.  Instead  of 
art  for  its  own  sake,  art  was  used  to  portray  the  spirit  of 
servility  to  despots.  Moreover,  Egyptian  artists  were 
very  limited  in  their  imagination.  To  express  wisdom, 
cunning,  courage,  and  other  traits,  they  often  placed  on 
the  statues  of  their  rulers  and  gods  the  heads  of  ani- 
mals supposed  to  have  those  qualities.  Much  of  their 
work  was  unnatural  and  confined  to  straight  lines ; 
but  in  later  days  they  learned  to  carve  in  stone  mar- 
velous, lifelike  portraits.  In  their  art,  the  Persians, 
Assyrians,  Hebrews,  and  Babylonians  were  in  many 
respects  like  the  Egyptians. 

Greek  Art.  It  was  the  Greeks  who  first  worshiped 
beauty  and  gave  living  and  natural  form  to  painting 
and  sculpture.  While  the  Greeks  learned,  too,  from  the 
art  of  their  neighbors,  especially  from  the  Egyptians, 
they  were  themselves  creative.  That  is,  they  did  not 
merely  imitate.  They  had  imagination  and  expressed 
their  ideas  in  the  spirit  of  their  own  freer  society. 
Their  matchless  work,  of  which  we  have  many  examples, 
has  been  the  model  and  envy  of  artists  everywhere. 
Their  chief  subjects  were  gods  rather  than  kings.  As 


THE   CULTURE  OF  THE   ANCIENT  NATIONS          83 


Metropolitan  Afusevm 
THE  Discus  THROWER 


84  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

the  gods  were  supposed  to  be  like  men  and  women,  the 
artists  drew  them  in  human  form.  Moreover,  the 
Greeks  made  their  own  bodies  beautiful  by  taking 
athletic  exercise,  and  these  served  as  the  models  for 
artists.  Instead  of  carving  rigid  images  like  the 
Egyptians,  the  Greeks  gave  movement  and  grace  to 
their  statues.  The  Discus  Thrower  beautifully  rep- 
resents this  living  art.  Lovers  of  art  tell  us  that 
Phidias,  a  Greek  born  about  500  years  before  Christ, 
was  the  greatest  of  all  the  Greek  sculptors,  and  that 
in  beauty  his  work  has  never  been  surpassed. 

Roman  Art.  In  the  field  of  art  the  Romans  were 
copyists  rather  than  creators.  They  saw  about  them 
in  the  old  Greek  colonies  of  Italy  many  examples  of 
the  finest  Greek  work.  They  welcomed  Greek  artists 
who  came  to  Italy  to  seek  their  fortunes  or  were 
exiled  from  home.  They  brought  Greeks  from  Athens 
to  teach  them,  and  they  sent  their  sons  to  study  in 
Greece.  For  fine  and  delicate  things  they  relied  mainly 
upon  Greek  skill.  As  the  Romans  grew  rich,  the  sena- 
tors, emperors,  and  noble  ladies  took  pride  in  having 
themselves  portrayed  in  marble.  Some  of  the  best 
examples  of  art  that  have  been  preserved  from  the 
Roman  period  are  the  busts  of  eminent  citizens. 
The  Romans  not  only  copied  ;  they  also  collected  and 
preserved  some  of  the  best  work  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 

Modern  Studies  of  Ancient  Architecture  and  Art. 
Modern  admiration  for  Greek  and  Roman  work  is 
so  great  that  the  leading  nations  now  have  schools 


THE   CULTURE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  NATIONS 


at  Athens  and  at  Rome  for  the  study  of  art  and  archi- 
tecture, as  well  as  other  antiquities.  Some  of  these 
schools  are  supported  by  governments  and  others  by 
private  societies.  The  English,  French,  Germans, 

and  Americans  have  been   eager       t 

seekers  after  the  beauties  of  the 
ancient  world.  Their  museums 
are  filled  with  statues  —  originals 
or  models  —  and  other  art  ob- 
jects. In  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Europeans  began  to  write 
serious  and  important  books  on 
ancient  art  and  buildings.  To- 
day there  are  whole  libraries  on 
the  subject  in  many  tongues.  No 
one  who  desires  to  become  a 
master  builder  or  painter  or  sculp- 
tor can  neglect  the  study  of  the 
ancients. 

Architects  to-day  use  in  our 
buildings  the  Greek  columns  and 
the  Roman  arches,  as  well  as  the 
spires  of  the  later  ages.  In  Amer- 
ica's own  creation,  the  "  sky- 
scraper," there  appear  many  de- 
vices of  the  ancients.  If  an 

ancient  Greek  could  come  to  life,  like  Rip  Van 
Winkle,  and  stroll  down  the  streets  of  New  York  City, 
he  would  be  astounded  to  see  the  pillars  of  a  Greek 


Courtesy  of  Bankers'  Trust  Co. 

GREECE  AND  EGYPT 
IN  NEW  YORK 


86  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

temple  perched  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  earth  near 
the  dizzy  summit  of  a  great  office  building.  If  an 
ancient  Pharaoh  could  step  out  of  his  mummy  case  and 
accompany  the  Greek,  he  would  be  amazed  to  see 
the  columns  of  the  Greek  temple  surmounted  by  a  huge 
pyramid  towering  high  toward  the  clouds.  Verily  we 
may  again  say  of  the  ancients  : 

On  all  this  world  of  men  inherits 
Their  seal  is  set. 

LITERATURE  AND  EDUCATION 

The  Origin  of  Writing.  Literature  and  education, 
like  art,  were  matters  of  slow  growth.  They  did  not 
spring  up  overnight.  Indeed,  for  countless  ages  man- 
kind got  along  without  knowing  how  to  write ;  that 
is,  how  to  express  ideas  by  means  of  marks. 

The  art  of  writing  began  with  picture  making. 
One  may  write  "  There  is  a  house  "  merely  by  drawing 
a  picture  of  a  house.  On  the  other  hand,  one  may  use 
a  picture  to  convey  an  idea  very  different  from  the 
drawing  itself.  For  example,  a  picture  of  an  eye  may 
mean  not  only  an  "  eye,"  but  "  I." 

Picture  writing  easily  grew  into  sign  writing.  It 
became  possible  to  express  even  the  most  difficult 
ideas  by  means  of  symbols.  All  early  writing  in  Egypt 
and  Babylonia  was  based  on  pictures,  and  it  took 
hundreds  of  different  pictures  or  symbols  to  tell  a 
long-  story.  To  this  day,  the  written  language  of 
China  and  Japan  has  the  form  of  pictures.  It  is  made 


THE   CULTURE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  NATIONS 


up  of  thousands  of  signs  or  separate  characters.     Even 
for  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  it  is  difficult  to  learn. 

Out  of  picture  writing  grew  the  art  of 
writing  by  marks,  each  of  which  stood  for 
a  sound.  Finally,  there  were  invented 
twenty  or  more  marks  or  letters  which  in- 
cluded all  the  sounds  of  a  spoken  language. 
Three  thousand  years  before  Christ,  the 
Egyptians  had  stumbled  upon  this  device 
and  had  invented  an  alphabet  of  twenty-four 
letters.  Long  afterward  the  Phoenicians 
made  the  alphabet  from  which  ours  came. 

Thus  phonetic  spelling,  or  spelling  by 
sound,  took  the  place  of  picture  writing. 
This  was  one  of  the  most  wonderful  steps 
in  the  growth  of  human  knowledge,  be- 
cause in  this  way  thoughts  could  easily  be 
recorded  and  so  passed  on  from  one  age  to 
the  next.  It  made  possible  widespread  learn- 
ing—  the  democracy  of  knowledge,  so  to 
speak.  Knowledge  could  no  longer  be  lim- 
ited to  the  few  when  anyone  with  a  little 
leisure  could  learn  to  read  the  books  of  the 
wisest  thinkers.  China  at  this  time  is  taking 


Metropolitan 
Museum 


this  step  in  language  development  by  intro-  EGYPTIAN  Pic- 

...  .  ,,.  -i  i       TURE  WRITING 

•ducmg  phonetic  spelling  among  her  people. 

The  Subject  Matter  of  Early  Literature.  Long  be- 
fore picture  writing  or  phonetic  spelling  was  invented, 
ancient  peoples  had  stored  up  in  their  minds  a  great 


88  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

deal  of  knowledge.  It  was  in  the  form  of  ballads, 
songs,  tales,  fables,  and  laws.  It  was  handed  down 
from  father  to  son  by  word  of  mouth.  In  each  nation 
or  tribe  there  were  a  few  "  wise  "  men  whose  business 
it  was  to  memorize  this  store  of  learning.  They  also 
taught  it  to  the  young,  who  were  in  turn  to  pass 
it  on.  When  the  art  of  writing  was  invented,  the 
first  things  set  down  were  the  old  songs,  ballads,  stories, 
and  laws.  Thus  literature  began.  The  word  itself 
is  from  the  Latin  litera,  meaning  merely  a  letter  of 
the  alphabet  or  symbol. 

The  earliest  of  the  Greek  poets  whose  works  have 
come  down  to  us  was  Homer,  who  collected  the  song- 
stories  that  had  long  been  sung  in  Greece.  So  among 
the  English-speaking  people,  the  earliest  literature  is 
the  songs  and  legends  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  peoples 
brought  together  in  the  poem  of  Beowulf.  In  some- 
what the  same  way,  our  own  poet  Longfellow  took  the 
American  Indian  legends,  wove  them  into  Hiawatha, 
and  gave  us  a  picture  of  old  Indian  religion,  life,  and 
culture. 

Oriental  Literature.  The  Egyptians,  Jews,  and  other 
ancient  peoples  had  many  books  long,  long  before  the 
birth  of  Christ.  They  had  war  songs,  stories  of  the 
great  deeds  of  kings,  medical  books,  and  writings  on 
moral  conduct.  The  Egyptians  had  great  libraries 
of  books  written  on  papyrus,  that  is,  rolls  of  paper 
made  out  of  reeds.  At  Nineveh  there  was  a  huge 
library  of  clay  tablets.  The  Jews  likewise  had  a  vast 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  ANCIENT    NATIONS          89 

literature.  Many  of  their  writings,  which  were  deemed 
sacred,  were  collected  in  that  part  of  the  Bible  known 
as  the  Old  Testament.  In  it  we  find  stones  of  creation 
and  of  many  wars  ;  there  we  can  read  the  history  of 
the  Jews  and  other  peoples  of  southwestern  Asia,  be- 
sides the  famous  laws  written  in  the  Ten  Command- 
ments and  poems,  such  as  the  Psalms. 

Greek  Literature.  Greek  literature,  as  we  have 
seen,  opens  with  the  poems  of  Homer.  In  his  Iliad 
and  Odyssey,  he  recounted  many  a  myth  and  tale  of 
ancient  gods  and  men.  When  Homer  lived  —  indeed, 
whether  he  lived  at  all  —  is  uncertain  ;  but  several  hun- 
dred years  before  Christ,  the  stories  that  bear  his  name 
were  known  among  the  Greeks. 

As  Greece  grew  older,  there  appeared  many  poets, 
orators,  philosophers,  and  play  writers.  The  great 
poetess  Sappho  was  placed  by  the  learned  Greek, 
Aristotle,  in  the  same  rank  with  Homer.  The  historian 
Herodotus  wrote  fully  about  an  important  period  of 
Greek  history,  and  is  regarded  to-day  as  "  the  father 
of  historical  writing."  The  Greeks  also  wrote  plays  — 
tragedies  and  comedies  —  which  were  given  in  the 
large  open-air  theaters.  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Euripides  won  immortality  as  playwrights.  When 
Athenian  citizens  met  to  elect  officers  and  decide 
public  questions,  they  were  addressed  by  orators  who 
discussed  the  issues  of  the  day.  The  most  famous 
orator  of  all,  Demosthenes,  warned  the  Athenians 
in  a  famous  oration  that  they  were  in  danger  of  being 


90  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

conquered  by  Philip,  king  of  Macedon.  In  addition  to 
poets,  historians,  playwrights,  and  orators,  the  Greeks 
had  many  philosophers.  These  men  inquired  into  the 
meaning  of  life,  the  nature  of  the  gods,  and  human  con- 
duct. First  among  these  were  Socrates,  Plato,  and 
Aristotle,  whose  ideas,  after  the  lapse  of  more  than 
two  thousand  years,  are  still  studied  by  seekers  after 
wisdom. 

In  each  of  these  fields  of  literature,  the  Greeks 
created  a  fine  method,  or  technique,  which  serves  as 
a  guide  for  our  own  writers.  They  searched  for  the 
best  style ;  that  is,  for  clearness,  force,  and  accuracy. 
In  the  play,  or  drama,  they  learned  how  to  make 
thrilling  plots,  to  work  audiences  up  to  the  climax, 
and  to  make  a  telling  ending.  Their  orators  studied 
deeply  the  art  of  persuasion  and  drew  up  certain  im- 
portant rules  for  making  a  convincing  speech. 

Roman  Literature.  The  Romans  conquered  the 
Greeks  by  arms,  but  it  may  truly  be  said  that  the 
Greeks  conquered  the  Romans  by  their  art  and  lit- 
erature. The  greatest  Greek  books  were  translated 
into  Latin,  often  by  Greek  scholars.  They  were  taught 
to  Roman  youths  and  imitated  by  Roman  poets, 
historians,  orators,  and  philosophers. 

The  Romans  were  more  than  imitators  in  literature. 
Their  poet  Vergil  will  ever  live  beside  Homer.  Their 
Horace,  who  wrote  about  everyday  Roman  life,  will 
compare  in  fame  with  the  best  poets  of  Greece. 
The  Roman  orator  Cicero,  even  more  than  Demos- 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS         91 

thenes,  perhaps,  was  the  model  of  all  later  orators  who 
sought  to  speak  in  the  grand  style.  The  philosopher 
Seneca,  though  he  did  not  rival  Aristotle  in  his  wis- 
dom and  understanding,  was  counted  among  the  great 
thinkers  of  the  ancients.  As  playwrights,  however,  the 
Romans  could  not  excel,  or  even  equal,  the  Greeks. 
The  people  preferred  the  crudest  kind  of  comedies. 
Roman  playwrights  and  actors  could  not  think  up 
anything  as  exciting  as  the  gladiatorial  combats  in 
the  Colosseum  or  the  gorgeous  parades  arranged  by  the 
emperors. 

In  writings  on  law  and  history,  however,  the  Romans 
were  path-breakers.  They  compiled  their  laws  in 
great  collections  or  codes.  Many  of  these  have  come 
down  to  us  and  are  carefully  read  by  students  of  law. 
Indeed,  Roman  law,  changed,  of  course,  is  still  used 
in  France,  Germany,  Japan,  Italy,  and  many  other 
countries. 

Rome  also  produced  some  historians  of  lasting 
fame.  One  of  the  finest  models  of  historical  writing 
is  Caesar's  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  War.  For 
simplicity,  dignity,  and  accuracy,  it  is  admirable.  It 
is  justly  chosen  as  the  first  serious  Latin  book  to  be 
read  in  American  high  schools  to-day.  In  the  historical 
writings  of  Tacitus  we  have  more  than  stories  of  battles 
and  rulers  ;  we  have  wonderful  pictures  of  life  and 
customs.  Tacitus  did  not  seek  merely  to  glorify  his 
country.  He  tried  to  understand  it  and  to  find  ways 
of  protecting  and  saving  it. 


92  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

The   Influence  of  the  Greek   and   Latin   Languages. 

After  Greece  declined  and  the  Roman  empire  fell  to 
pieces,  the  books  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  like  their 
art,  remained  to  influence  all  future  generations.  There 
is  only  one  Roman  Forum,  and  one  must  go  to  Rome 
to  see  it ;  but  Caesar's  Commentaries  can  be  multiplied 
into  millions  of  copies.  The  elegant  Latin  that  Cicero 
spoke  was  no  longer  in  daily  use ;  the  Latin  of  the 
people  slowly  grew  into  modern  Italian,  French,  and 
Spanish. 

While  this  change  was  taking  place,  educated  people 
kept  on  studying  and  writing  Latin.  It  became,  as 
we  shall  see,  the  official  language  of  the  entire  Christian 
Church  for  many  centuries.  The  official  documents 
of  the  Catholic  Church  are  still  published  in  it.  So 
much  wisdom  was  locked  up  in  the  writings  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  that  teachers  once  required  all 
college  and  high  school  students  to  learn  one  or  both 
of  these  ancient  tongues.  It  is  only  within  recent 
years  that  college  students  have  been  allowed  to  choose 
modern  instead  of  ancient  languages. 

Education  in  Ancient  Times.  As  in  our  time,  so 
in  ancient  Greece  and  Rome  there  were  schools. 
Sometimes  they  were  supported  by  the  government, 
but  usually  they  were  conducted  by  private  persons. 
As  in  our  day,  also,  the  rich  Greeks  and  Romans  often 
had  private  tutors  to  teach  their  children  at  home. 
In  Rome,  it  was  common  for  wealthy  men  to  employ 
learned  Greek  slaves  to  teach  their  boys  and  girls. 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS         93 

Sparta  affords  us  the  best  example  of  government 
control  of  education  among  the  Greeks.  In  that 
state  every  son  of  a  freeman  was  trained  by  officials 
to  serve  the  government,  especially  in  the  art  of  war- 
fare. The  education  of  the  Athenian  boy  usually  con- 
sisted of  reading,  writing,  music,  and  gymnastics. 

To  reading  and  writing,  the  Romans  frequently 
added  the  study  of  the  Greek  language.  This  was 
because  they  relied  upon  Greek  books  for  much  of 
their  wisdom.  It  appears  that  all  the  larger  cities  of 
Italy  and  most  of  the  small  towns  also  had  schools, 
at  least  for  elementary  education.  In  the  days  of  the 
great  Roman  empire,  the  government  encouraged  citi- 
zens to  found  schools  in  the  provinces  in  order  to 
spread  the  language  and  the  culture  of  Rome.  Roman 
nobles  and  rich  men  often  had  great  libraries  on  their 
country  estates  ;  and  occasionally  one  of  them  gave 
money  for  a  public  library  instead  of  giving  a  gladia- 
torial show. 

In  addition  to  the  lower  schools  there  were  univer- 
sities at  Athens,  Rome,  and  many  other  ancient  cities. 
These  were  established  by  groups  of  teachers  who 
gathered  around  some  scholar  and  taught  his  ideas. 
Athens  was  the  great  university  center  of  antiquity. 
To  that  city  flocked  students  from  Rome,  Egypt,  and 
all  parts  of  the  known  world.  There  some  of  the  wisest 
thinkers  of  all  time,  men  like  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aris- 
totle, won  their  fame  as  teachers. 

There    was    little    learning   outside   of   the    schools. 


94  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

There  were  no  printed  books,  magazines,  or  newspapers. 
The  masses  of  the  people  were  slaves  and  received 
no  education  at  all.  Workmen  and  merchants  were 
regarded  as  persons  of  a  lower  order,  unworthy  of 
education.  The  modern  idea  that  every  boy  and  girl 
should  go  to  school  was  utterly  unknown.  Since 
labor  was  looked  down  upon,  training  for  work  with 
tools  was  treated  as  something  beneath  the  dignity  of 
the  educated  classes. 

Still  the  Greeks  thought  of  themselves  as  masters 
of  all  things.  Thus  wrote  the  poet  Sophocles,  when 
Athens  was  in  her  glory :  "  Of  all  strong  things,  none 
is  more  wonderfully  strong  than  man.  He  can  cross 
the  wintry  sea  and  year  by  year  compels  with  his 
plow  the  unwearied  strength  of  the  Earth,  the  oldest 
of  the  immortal  gods.  He  seizes  for  his  prey  the  aery 
birds  and  teeming  fishes,  and  with  his  wit  has  tamed 
the  mountain-ranging  beasts,  the  long-maned  horses, 
and  the  tireless  bull.  Language  is  his,  and  wind-swift 
thought  and  city-founding  mind  ;  and  he  has  learned 
to  shelter  himself  from  cold  and  piercing  rain  ;  and  has 
every  device  to  meet  every  ill,  save  Death  alone." 

Ancient  Ideas  about  Government.  In  their  schools, 
the  ancients  discussed  the  whole  subject  of  govern- 
ment. They  also  thought  a  great  deal  about  the  best 
form  of  government.  Socrates  and  Plato  gave  much 
attention  to  planning  an  ideal  scheme.  They  decided 
that  all  land  and  property  ought  to  be  owned  by  people 
in  common  and  that  all  people  should  work  solely  for 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS          95 

the  common  good.  Aristotle,  on  the  contrary,  replied 
that  this  was  impossible.  He  said  that  property  should 
be,  as  a  general  rule,  private;  he  thought  that  men 
would  work  harder  if  each  one  looked  after  his  own 
business  and  reaped  the  results  of  his  own  labor.  He 
taught  that  the  best  form  of  government  was  a  kind  of 
modified  democracy.  He  said  that  farmers  busy  in 
their  fields  made  the  best  citizens,  and  that  an  ideal 
government  was  one  in  which  each  family  had  a  small 
amount  of  property.  He  feared  the  government  of  the 
few  or  the  rich.  He  likewise  feared  the  government  of 
the  many  or  the  poor.  In  his  scheme,  women  were 
to  obey  their  husbands  and  keep  silent,  and  slaves 
were  to  do  most  of  the  work.  Aristotle  believed  that 
slavery  was  both  natural  and  right. 

Some  of  the  writings  of  these  three  philosophers 
have  been  kept  all  through  the  centuries,  and  have 
been  translated  into  English.  The  founders  of  the 
American  republic  were  familiar  with  them.  Jefferson, 
for  example,  agreed 'with  Aristotle  in  many  things, 
especially  that  a  nation  of  farmers  was  the  best  kind 
of  nation  (First  Book,  p.  157). 

ANCIENT  RELIGIONS  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

Religion.  All  peoples  in  all  times  have  believed  in 
powers  and  forces  outside  of  themselves,  called  gods 
or  goddesses.  With  this  belief  has  been  coupled  a 
feeling  of  duty  toward  the  gods,  which  all  must  fulfill. 

All    early    races    believed    in    many    gods.      "Our 


96 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


than  a  man  ! 


country  is  so  peopled  with  divinities,"  exclaimed  a 
Roman  writer,  "  that  you  can  find  a  god  more  easily 
The  gods  were  to  the  ancients  the 
spirit  of  mystery  that  lay  in  all  the 
works  of  nature.  They  thought  of 
them  as  in  trees,  vegetation,  seeds, 
growth,  the  seasons,  and  death.  Some 
gods  were  great  and  powerful  and 
towered  above  all  the  rest.  Others 
were  minor  and  local. 

In  Greece,  each  family  and  each 
community  had  its  local  deities.  Then 
there  were  gods  and  goddesses  com- 
mon to  all  Greeks.  Chief  among  the 
latter  were  Zeus,  the  father  of  gods 
and  men,  ruler  and  lawgiver  of  the 
universe  ;  Athena,  the  goddess  of  wis- 
dom and  handiwork  ;  Apollo,  the  god 
of  light  and  beauty;  Demeter,  the 
goddess  of  the  earth,  fruits,  and  vege- 
tation  ;  Aphrodite,  the  goddess  of 


AN  EGYPTIAN  GODDESS  love  .     and  Ares?  the  god  Qf  battles. 

The  Romans  likewise  worshiped  many  gods.  Ju- 
piter, like  Zeus  in  Greece,  was  the  greatest  of  them 
all,  while  Mars,  like  Ares,  was  the  mighty  god  of 
battles.  The  goddess  Vesta  ruled  over  household 
affairs,  and  Venus  was  adored  as  the  goddess  of  love. 
Besides  these,  the  Romans  had  hundreds  of  minor 
gods  for  places  and  things.  Silvanus,  for  example, 


THE    CULTURE   OF   THE    ANCIENT   NATIONS         97 

was  the  god  of  the  woods,  and  Terminus,  the  guardian 
of  the  boundaries  of  land. 


Metropolitan  Museum 

A  RESTORATION  OF  THE  INTERIOR  OF  THE  PARTHENON  SHOWING  THE 
GODDESS  ATHENA 

Among  both  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  there  was 
set  aside  a  special  class  of  persons,  known  as  priests 


98  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

or  priestesses.  It  was  their  duty  to  take  charge  of 
the  worship  of  the  gods.  They  were  to  keep  the  gods 
pleased,  to  avert  their  anger,  and  to  find  out  what  they 
wanted  men  to  do.  In  Rome,  for  instance,  it  was  the 
duty  of  six  maidens,  known  as  the  Festal  virgins,  to 
guard  the  sacred  fire  that  burned  always  in  the  temple 
erected  to  Vesta,  the  household  goddess.  There  were 
in  later  days  pontiffs,  who  had  charge  of  all  religious 
affairs.  They  performed  the  ceremonies  at  marriages 
and  funerals  and  on  other  occasions. 

The  chief  pontiff  was  called  "  the  judge  of  all  things 
divine  and  human."  In  the  days  of  the  empire,  the 
emperor  himself  was  supreme  pontiff.  Indeed,  he  was 
worshiped  by  the  people  as  one  of  the  gods  themselves. 

Ideas  of  Right  Conduct.  Very  early  in  their  history, 
both  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  began  to  think  about 
morals.  They  wrote  books  on  the  duties  which  people 
owe  to  one  another,  and  some  of  their  writings  on  this 
subject  have  come  down  to  us.  One  of  them,  Aristotle 
(P-  9S)>  taught  that  all  persons  should  seek  the  best 
life  and  that  the  best  life  is  a  life  of  virtue. 

Among  the  Romans,  none  rose  to  nobler  heights 
than  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  was  the  emperor  from  161 
to  1 80  A.D.  In  a  book  called  Meditations,  which  can 
be  had  in  many  English  translations,  he  wrote  lofty 
rules  for  right  conduct.  He  taught  kindness,  simple 
living,  modesty,  honest  labor,  generosity,  and  the 
spirit  of  forgiveness.  "  Respect  that  which  is  best  in 
the  universe,"  he  said,  "  and  in  a  like  manner  also 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS         99 

respect  that  which  is  best  in  thyself.  ...  I  seek 
the  truth  by  which  no  man  was  ever  injured.  He  is 
injured  who  persists  in  his  error  and  ignorance."  All 
good  things,  he  said,  he  learned  from  his  mother  and 
his  teacher,  and  in  the  midst  of  his  trying  duties  as 
emperor  he  remembered  them  and  sought  to  practice 
them  in  daily  life.  Often  he  was  impatient  with  man- 
kind. "  The  things  which  are  much  valued  in  life," 
he  once  exclaimed,  "  are  empty  and  rotten  and  trifling, 
and  people  are  like  little  dogs  biting  one  another  and 
little  children  quarreling,  crying,  and  then  straight- 
way laughing."  The  wars  and  evil  deeds  of  men 
filled  him  with  grief.  But  he  concluded :  "  Still  it 
is  no  right  way  to  be  offended  with  men  ;  it  is  thy  duty 
to  care  for  them  and  bear  with  them  gently."  Never- 
theless, he  found  it  hard  to  live  up  to  the  rules  he  chose 
for  himself.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  this  very  man  was 
cruel  to  the  Christians,  the  followers  of  One  who  also 
taught  of  mercy  and  love. 

The  Idea  of  One  God.  The  wisest  among  the  an- 
cients believed  that  there  was  only  one  God,  not  many 
gods.  The  Hebrew  prophets  were  among  the  first 
to  take  this  view,  and  to  proclaim  Jehovah  as  their 
sole  God.  The  masses  of  the  Hebrews,  however,  had 
a  hard  struggle  in  trying  to  keep  the  one  true  faith. 
Continually  they  fell  into  idolatry  and  the  worship  of 
other  gods.  Whenever  they  did  this,  they  were 
fiercely  denounced  by  the  prophets  and  called  back 
to  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 


100  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

The  Greeks  in  time  began  to  exalt  one  of  their  gods, 
Zeus.  The  deepest  of  their  thinkers  were  working 
toward  the  idea  of  one  God,  the  wise  and  just  ruler 
of  the  universe.  Socrates  was  put  to  death  for  ques- 
tioning the  belief  in  the  old  gods  and  teaching  that 
there  was  but  one  God. 

The  Romans  in  later  days  exalted  Jupiter  above 
all  their  other  deities.  Many  of  them,  like  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  teachers,  learned  to  believe  in  one  God, 
but  Roman  statesmen  said  that  the  people  must  honor 
all  the  gods.  After  the  Romans  came  to  rule  over  many 
lands  and  nations,  they  permitted  every  kind  of  belief 
that  did  not  make  trouble  for  their  officers.  By  doing 
this,  they  grew  more  and  more  doubtful  about  their 
own  gods.  It  is  said  that  many  a  Roman  priest  laughed 
up  his  sleeve  as  he  offered  sacrifices  to  his  many  gods. 
A  Roman  in  the  days  of  the  Emperor  Nero  flatly 
declared  that  "  nowadays  nobody  believes  in  Heaven 
and  nobody  cares  a  straw  for  Jupiter ;  everybody  shuts 
his  eyes  and  just  keeps  thinking  about  his  own  affairs." 
Through  this  decay  of  Roman  religion,  the  way  was 
prepared  for  a  new  faith,  Christianity. 

The  Origin  of  Christianity.  In  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus, Rome's  first  great  emperor,  there  was  born  in 
Palestine,  a  distant  part  of  his  realm,  Jesus  Christ, 
the  founder  of  the  new  religion.  His  life,  his  labors, 
his  teachings,  and  his  tragic  end  are  all  recorded  in 
the  first  four  books  of  the  New  Testament,  the  Gospels 
of  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John.  In  them  we  read 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS       101 

how  he  went  about  teaching  in  the  highways  and  the 
byways,  how  he  rebuked  the  Pharisees  for  their  pride 
and  haughtiness,  how  he  performed  miracles,  how 
he  delivered  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  how  he 
preached  the  fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood 
of  man,  how  he  taught  that  the  humblest  who  believed 
in  him  should  have  eternal  life,  and  how  he  gathered 
his  disciples  around  him  to  spread  the  gospel. 

Near  the  end  of  the  story  we  are  told  that  he  was 
brought  before  the  Roman  governor,  Pontius  Pilate, 
and  accused  of  trying  to  make  himself  king  of  the 
Jews,  in  defiance  of  the  Roman  emperor.  Pilate  was 
much  puzzled  by  the  conduct  and  words  of  Jesus, 
and  at  length  turned  him  over  to  the  mob  to  be  cru- 
cified. Then  comes  the  story  of  his  resurrection,  the 
Last  Supper  with  his  followers,  and  his  ascension  into 
heaven.  Among  the  very  last  words  of  Jesus  recorded 
by  Mark  was  the  command :  "  Go  ye  into  all  the 
world  and  preach  the  gospel  to  every  creature." 

The  Mission  of  the  Apostles.  The  command  was 
carried  out  by  the  followers  whom  Jesus  left  be- 
hind. In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  in  the  letters 
of  Paul  to  the  Romans,  the  Corinthians,  and  his  other 
brethren,  we  read  of  the  labors  of  the  disciples  and 
missionaries.  In  the  second  chapter  of  the  Acts  it 
is  written  that  the  faithful  apostles,  who  assembled 
at  Jerusalem,  were  "  gifted  with  tongues  "  so  that  they 
might  preach  the  gospel  to  the  peoples  of  the  earth 
in  all  languages.  There  we  learn  about  the  formation 


102  OUR  OLD  .WORLD   BACKGROUND 

of  the  first  church  of  the  faithful  at  Jerusalem.  There 
we  read  of  the  ceaseless  journeys  of  the  missionaries 
of  Christ  as  they  spread  the  gospel  in  many  parts  of 
the  Roman  empire  and  formed  new  churches  of  the 
faithful.  There  we  read  of  Paul,  converted  suddenly 
on  the  road  to  Damascus  and  preaching  the  gospel 
far  and  wide,  in  Athens,  Corinth,  and  Rome.  In  his 
many  letters  to  the  new  congregations  of  Christians, 
Paul  encourages  them,  chides  them,  advises  them, 
explains  the  gospel,  and  exhorts  them  to  holy  living 
and  good  works. 

The  Reasons  for  the  Spread  of  the  New  Faith. 
With  wonderful  swiftness,  the  Christian  faith  spread 
among  the  masses  everywhere  in  the  Roman  empire. 
There  were  many  reasons  for  this.  For  one  thing,  it 
was  a  universal  faith ;  that  is,  it  offered  salvation  and 
immortal  life  not  only  to  Jews,  but  also  to  Greeks, 
Romans,  and  all  the  earth's  multitudes.  Again,  it 
taught  the  equality  of  all  men  before  God,  that  the 
soul  of  the  most  wretched  Roman  slave  was  as  precious 
as  the  soul  of  the  proudest  emperor.  Moreover,  it 
offered  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  all  persons  worn  out 
by  the  labors,  trials,  and  perils  of  this  world.  None 
was  so  humble  that  he  was  unwelcome  in  the  new 
church.  Had  not  Jesus  himself  said  :  "  Blessed  are 
the  meek  for  they  shall  inherit  the  earth "  ?  The 
working  people,  scorned  and  despised  by  the  ruling 
class  of  Rome,  found  a  home  in  the  Christian  congre- 
gations. Jesus  had  been  a  carpenter  and  his  apostles 


THE    CULTURE    OF   THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS       103 

had  been  humble  folk.  On  the  Roman  slave  whipped 
to  his  dungeon  at  night,  Christ's  words  of  mercy  fell 
like  the  dews  of  heaven.  The  lowly  everywhere 
turned  from  the  stern  gods  of  war  and  hatred  to  the 
God  of  love  and  sweet  charity. 

Persecution  of  the  Christians.  The  Roman  govern- 
ment at  first  tolerated  Christianity  as  it  tolerated 
all  other  religious  beliefs.  In  a  little  while,  however, 
Roman  mobs  began  to  stone  the  missionaries  and 
preachers.  In  time  of  such  disorders,  minor  Roman 
officers  were  called  upon  to  punish  Christians  for  dis- 
turbing the  peace  and  preaching  against  the  Roman 
religion.  After  a  while  the  emperor  himself  began  to 
take  notice  of  the  new  sect  and  to  look  upon  it  as 
dangerous.  The  Christians  refused  to  worship  him 
as  divine,  as  all  Roman  subjects  were  required  to  do. 
They  would  not  preach  toleration  of  the  Roman  re- 
ligion because  they  believed  it  to  be  utterly  false. 
Moreover,  they  held  many  public  and  private  meetings 
and  formed  brotherhoods  among  the  faithful. 

The  Roman  emperor  was  in  mortal  terror  of  secret 
societies  and  "  seditious  "  meetings.  He  began  to 
fear  that  the  Christians  would  try  to  overthrow  him, 
especially  as  they  grew  more  and  more  numerous. 
So  at  length  he  forbade  Christian  worship.  He  pun- 
ished with  imprisonment  or  death  thousands  of  Chris- 
tians who  refused  to  obey.  Some  were  burned  at  the 
stake ;  others  were  thrown  to  wild  beasts  in  the  Colos- 
seum. Their  churches  were  torn  down  ;  copies  of  the 


104        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

Scriptures  were  destroyed  by  fire ;  and  their  ceremonies 
were  forbidden  by  law. 

Some  emperors  were  worse  than  others,  but  by  the 
end  of  the  third  century  the  persecution  of  Christians 
became  widespread  and  terrible.  In  Rome  they  were 
forced  to  take  refuge  in  caves  and  underground  passages, 
known  as  catacombs.  In  several  places  in  Rome  and 
other  cities,  they  dug  vast  tunnels  and  rooms  deep 
underground.  There,  huddled  together  in  the  darkness, 
they  held  their  religious  services  and  buried  their  dead. 
To-day  the  traveler,  by  the  dim  light  of  candles, 
may  journey  through  hundreds  of  miles  of  the  gloomy 
catacombs  of  Rome.  He  may  read  on  the  grave- 
stones and  on  the  walls  of  the  low-vaulted  chapels  the 
solemn  story  of  cruel  days  when  Christianity  was 
driven  underground  by  the  terrorism  of  the  Roman 
government. 

The  Triumph  of  Christianity.  Yet  persecution  could 
not  kill  Christianity.  •  On  the  contrary,  it  flourished 
in  spite  of  prisons,  executions,  and  mob  violence.  All 
over  the  Roman  empire  Christian  churches  sprang  up  ; 
and,  in  time,  some  rich  and  powerful  people  were  drawn 
to  the  new  faith.  Finally,  even  the  emperor  was  com- 
pelled to  compromise  with  the  Christians.  In  311 
A.D.  he  publicly  gave  them  permission  to  worship  as 
they  desired.  Before  many  more  years  passed  the 
Emperor  Constantine  declared  Christianity  to  be  the 
one  lawful  religion  of  his  empire. 

The  third  stage  in  the  triumph  of  Christianity  came 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS       105 

when  the  Roman  emperors  ordered  every  one  to  accept 
the  Christian  faith.  Those  people  who  refused  were 
called  heretics,  and  it  was  their  turn  to  be  severely 
punished. 

Thus,  about  three  hundred  years  after  the  death  of 
Christ,  the  Christian  faith  became  the  law  of  a  vast 
empire.  Rome,  the  old  capital  of  the  empire,  had 
become  the  seat  of  the  pope,  the  head  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  "  Catholic  "  meaning  universal.  According 
to  Catholic  belief,  the  first  pope  was  the  Apostle 
Peter,  to  whom  Christ  had  said  :  "  Thou  art  Peter 
and  upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my  church.  .  .  .  And 
I  will  give  unto  thee  the  keys  to  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 
This,  we  are  told,  was  the  beginning  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  Under  the  leadership  of  the  popes,  the  work 
of  the  Church  was  carried  on  even  while  the  Roman 
empire  was  crumbling  into  ruins.  Under  their  guidance 
earnest  missionaries  were  carrying  the  gospel  of  Christ 
far  and  wide  to  the  peoples  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

In  time  the  head  of  the  once  persecuted  Church 
dared  to  write  to  the  emperor  himself :  f  There  are 
two  powers,  august  Emperor,  by  which  the  world 
is  chiefly  ruled,  namely  the  sacred  authority  of  the 
priests  and  the  royal  power.  Of  these,  that  of  the 
priests  is  the  more  weighty  because  they  have  to  render 
an  account  even  for  the  kings  of  men  in  the  divine 
judgment." 

Surely  in  all  the  history  of  mankind  there  is  no 
story  more  amazing  than  this.  From  the  shores  of 


io6  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Galilee  there  came  a  religious  faith  that  was  to  con- 
quer a  vast  empire,  to  live  on  after  that  empire  had  per- 
ished, and  to  spread  to  every  land,  even  to  new  worlds 
yet  undreamed  of.  Under  the  banner  of  Jesus,  Colum- 
bus was  sent  forth  by  Queen  Isabella  in  quest  of  new 
peoples  to  be  brought  to  Christianity.  "  We  are  knit 
together  as  a  body  in  a  most  sacred  covenant  of  the 
Lord,"  exclaimed  the  leader  of  the  Pilgrims,  who,  many 
years  after  Columbus,  made  the  beginnings  of  New 
England  on  the  coast  of  North  America. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  Study  the  first  paragraph  of  this  chapter  carefully  and 
then  try  to  tell  what  is  meant  by  the  word  "culture"  as  used  in 
the  title  of  the  chapter.  2.  In  the  second  paragraph,  a  distinction 
is  made  between  "practical  arts"  and  "fine  arts" ;  name  as  many 
practical  arts  as  you  can  think  of;  as  many  fine  arts.  What 
would  you  say  are  the  chief  differences  between  the  two  ? 
3.  Irrigation  of  land  is  one  of  the  important  practical  arts  that 
have  come  down  to  us  from  very  ancient  times;  what  is  meant 
by  irrigating  land  ?  In  what  parts  of  our  country  are  farmers 
compelled  to  depend  upon  irrigation  ?  Find  pictures  of  irrigating 
ditches  in  your  geographies.  4.  Why  are  fertilizers  so  important 
in  farming  ?  What  usually  happens  to  farm  lands  that  are  used 
year  after  year  for  the  same  crops  without  the  aid  of  fertilizers  ? 
5.  Why  is  it  important  to  break  up  the  soil  as  finely  as  possible 
if  crops  are  to  be  raised  most  profitably  ?  How  does  the  modern 
farmer  break  up  the  soil  ?  6.  What  animals  are  used  by  the 
farmers  in  your  region  as  "draught  animals"  -that  is,  to  pull 
loads  ?  What  modern  machinery  is  used  also  for  this  purpose  ? 
For  how  long  a  time  has  such  machinery  been  in  general  use  ? 
7.  Certain  farm  animals  are  important  as  suppliers  of  food  rather 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS       107 

than  to  draw  loads ;  name  the  most  important  of  these.  Are 
any  animals  used  on  farms  to-day  that  were  not  known  to  the 
ancients  ?  8.  What  are  the  most  important  changes  that 
modern  civilization  has  brought  about  in  the  domestic  arts  ?  (In 
Chapter  xiii  you  will  be  told  some  of  the  changes  that  have  been 
brought  about  in  the  making  of  cloth.)  How  does  the  preparation 
of  food  in  these  days  differ  from  that  of  ancient  times  ?  What 
differences  are  there  in  "table  manners"?  What  are  the  chief 
differences  in  furniture  ? 

II.  i.    Study  the  picture  of  the  Greek  temple  on  p.   97.     In 
what    ways    did    this    building    differ    from    a    modern    church  ? 

2.  Find  out  whether  there  are  any  buildings  in  your  neighborhood 
that  represent  in  any  way   the  Greek   architecture.     (Wherever 
columns  are  used  for  porticoes  or  porches,  the  "capitals"  or  tops 
of  the  columns   are  often   copied   after  the  old   Greek  models.) 

3.  Compare  the  seating  capacity  of  the  Colosseum  at  Rome  with 
that  of  the  largest  hall  or  auditorium  with  which  you  are  familiar. 

4.  The  ancients  had  no  buildings  like  the  great  "sky-scrapers" 
of  modern  American  cities ;    .find  out  how  it  is  possible  to  build 
these  high  buildings,  and  what  materials  modern  builders  use  that 
were   not  known   to   the   ancients.       5.    Primitive   artists   living 
in  the  Old  Stone  Age  drew  much  more  lifelike  pictures. of  men 
and  animals  (see  p.  37)  than  did  the  Egyptian  artists  (see  p.  82) ; 
why  are  the  Egyptian  pictures  so  "stiff"  and  formal  ?     Why  were 
the  Greeks  better  artists  than  the  Egyptians  ?       6.   What  kinds 
of  pictures  do  we  have  to-day  that  were  unknown  to  the  ancients  ? 

III.  I.    Can  you  explain  why  the  development  of  the   art  of 
writing  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  advances  in  civilization  ? 
2.    Why  was  phonetic  writing  so  great  an  advance  over  picture 
writing  ?     Experiment  by  trying  to  tell,  entirely  by  pictures,  of 
an  experience  that  you  have  had  and  then  by  making  a  written 
account  of  the  same  experience.       3.    How  was  knowledge  passed 
on  from  person  to  person  and  from  generation  to  generation  before 
the  invention  of  writing  ?     Why  would  this  process  make  the  pres- 


108  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

ervation  of  accurate  knowledge  difficult  ?  What  is  meant  by 
a  myth  ?  What  myths  have  you  read  ?  4.  Why  is  so  much  of 
the  early  literature  in  the  form  of  poetry  ?  (Which  is  the  easier 
for  you  to  memorize,  prose  or  poetry?)  5.  What  are  some  of 
the  important  differences  between  the  work  of  a  poet  and  that  of 
a  playwright  ?  Between  the  work  of  a  philosopher  and  that  of 
an  historian  ?  6.  What  great  invention  of  modern  times  has 
made  possible  a  true  "democracy  of  knowledge  "  (p.  87)  that  was 
impossible  even  among  the  ancient  peoples  who  had  developed 
the  art  of  writing  ?  7.  Make  a  list  of  the  ways  in  which  education 
in  ancient  times  differed  from  education  as  carried  on  to-day. 
8.  What  great  question  of  government  did  the  Greek  philosophers 
study  and  write  about  ?  Which  of  the  two  views  presented  on 
pp.  94-95  seems  to  be  the  more  generally  favored  to-day  ? 

IV.  I.  What  sentence  in  the  second  paragraph  under  the 
heading  "Ancient  Religions  and  Christianity"  explains  why  the 
belief  in  many  gods  was  so  widespread  among  the  ancients  ? 

2.  What  are  the  most  important  differences  between  the  religions 
of  the  ancients  and  the  religions  of  civilized  people  of  to-day  ? 

3.  In  what  country  did  the  Hebrews  originally  live?     How  did 
their  religion   differ  from   that  of  most  other   ancient  peoples  ? 

4.  Under  what  government  were  the  Hebrews  at  the  time  of  the 
birth  of  Christ?       5.    Why  did  the  teachings  of  Christ  spread  so 
rapidly?        6.    What  is  meant  by  "persecution,"  and  why  were 
the  early  Christians  persecuted  ?     Do  you  know  of  any  peoples 
in  recent  history  that  have  been  persecuted  because  of  their  re- 
ligion ?      7.    Explain  why  the  oldest  and  largest  of  the  Christian 
denominations  is  known  to-day  as  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

I.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  names  of  places  that  occur  in  this  chap- 
ter. Look  them  up  on  the  maps  on  pp.  46,  48,  and  53.  Try  to 
decide  in  advance  which  of  these  three  maps  you  should  consult 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS       109 

before  looking  up  each  name.  2.  Then  consult  the  maps  in  your 
textbook  in  geography  and  see  which  places  on  the  list  are  still 
known  by  the  same  names.  For  example,  Nineveh  occurs  on  the 
map  on  p.  46,  but  there  is  no  modern  city  of  that  name;  Rome, 
on  the  other  hand,  occurs  both  on  ancient  and  on  modern  maps 
of  Italy. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW  OF  CHAPTERS  I-IV 

1 .  Have  a  line  seven  feet  in  length  drawn  on  the  blackboard.    Let 
this  line  represent  the  period  of  recorded  history.     Place  at  the 
left  end  5000  B.C.  as  the  date  that  scholars  assign  to  the   first 
Egyptian  kings.     Place  at  the  right  end  of  the  line  the  date  of 
the  present  year.     The  date  of  the  birth  of  Christ  will  be  placed 
five  feet  from  the  left  end  of  the  line,  indicating  the  point  that 
divides   the   "B.C."    and    "A.D."    periods.     Place    at    the    proper 
points  on  the  line  the  following  dates,  indicating  what  each  stands 
for:    2300  B.C.  (Babylon);    753  B.C.  (beginnings  of  Rome);    323 
B.C.  (death  of  Alexander);    44  B.C    (death  of  Caesar);    313  A.D. 
(the    Roman    empire    officially    accepts    Christianity) ;    476   A.D. 
(fall  of  the  Roman  empire);    1492  A.D.  ;    1776  A.D.     If  the  black- 
board is  long  enough,  it  would  be  interesting  to  continue  a  dotted 
line  to  the  left  eighteen   feet  farther.     The   end   of   this    dotted 
line  would  represent  the  date  23,000  B.C.,  which  most   scholars 
believe  to  be  within  the  period  of  the  Old  Stone  Age  in  Europe. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  dotted  line  represents 
the  prehistoric  period,  about  which  our  actual  knowledge  is  very 
slight. 

2.  The  pupils  who  have  studied  carefully  the  four  preceding 
chapters  have  now  what  might  be  called  a  "speaking  acquaintance" 
with  some  very  interesting  and  important  persons.     If  they  wish 
to  become  better  acquainted  with  these  persons,  the  class  may 
well  be  divided  into  "reception  committees,"  each  of  which  will 
be  responsible  for  bringing  one  of  these  historic  characters  to  the 
class  by  finding  and  reporting  the  interesting  facts  about  his  life, 


1 10  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

and  especially  the  reasons  which  explain  why  his  fame  has  lived 
for  so  long  a  time.  The  following  are  suggested  :  Homer ;  Soc- 
rates;  Plato;  Aristotle;  Alexander  the  Great;  Phidias;  Julius 
Caesar;  Paul  the  Apostle;  Galen;  Constantine  the  Great. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

FOR  PUPILS 
Myths  and  Legends 

BAKER,  EMILIE  KIP  —  Stories  of  Greece  and  Rome;  Macmillan. 
BEST,  S.  M.  —  Glorious  Greece  and  Imperial  Rome;   Macmillan. 
BULFINCH  —  The  Golden  Age;  Stokes. 
CHURCH,  A.  J.  —  The  Aeneid  for  Boys  and  Girls;  Macmillan. 

The  Story  of  the  Iliad;   Macmillan. 

The  Story  of  the  Odyssey ;   Macmillan. 
COLUM,  PADRAIC — The  Golden  Fleece;   Macmillan. 

The  Children's  Homer;   Macmillan. 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.  —  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature;  Ginn. 
HARDING,  C.  H.  and  S.  B.  —  Stories  of  Greek  Gods,  Heroes,  and 

Men;   Scott  Foresman. 

HAWTHORNE,  NATHANIEL —  The  Wonder  Book;   Macmillan. 
KINGSLEY,   CHARLES  —  The  Heroes;    Macmillan. 
KUPFER,  GRACE  H.  —  Stories  of  Long  Ago;   Heath. 

Greece 

ASHLEY,  R.  L.  —  Early  European  Civilization,  iv,  viii. 
HALL,  JENNIE  —  Men  of  Old  Greece;    Little  Brown. 
MACGREGOR,   MARY  —  The  Story  of  Greece;    Stokes. 
O'NEILL,  ELIZABETH  —  The  Story  of  the  World,  iii-ix ;   Putnam. 
TAPPAN,  EVA  M.  —  The  Story    of  the  Greek    People;    Hough  ton 

Mifflin.: 
VAN  LOON  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  xiv-xvii. 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    ANCIENT    NATIONS       ill 

Rome 

ASHLEY  —  Early  European  Civilization,  ix,  xii,  xiii. 

HARDING,  C.  H.  and  S.  B.  —  The  City  of  the  Seven  Hills;  Scott 

Foresman. 
LOVELL,  ISABEL  —  Stories  in  Stone  from  the  Roman  Forum;   Mac- 

millan. 

MACGREGOR,  MARY  —  The  Story  of  Rome;  Stokes. 
O'NEILL  —  The  Story  of  the  World,  ix-xvii ;  Putnam. 
TAPPAN,  EVA  M.  —  The  Story  of  the  Roman  People;  Hough  ton 

Mifflin. 
VAN  LOON  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  xxii-xxvi. 

Christianity 

HODGES,  GEORGE  —  When  the  King  Came ;   Houghton  Mifflin. 
SMITH,  N.  A.  — Old,  Old  Tales  from  the  Old,  Old  Book;  Doubleday 

Page. 

TAPPAN,  EVA  M.  —  The  Old,  Old  Story  Book;  Houghton  Mifflin. 
The  Christ  Story;   Houghton  Mifflin. 

Education  and  School  Life 
SMITH,  D.  E.  —  Number  Stories  of  Long  Ago;    Ginn. 

FOR   TEACHERS 

BOTSFORD  —  A  Brief  History  of  the  World,  iii-x. 
BREASTED,  J.  H.  —  Ancient   Times;    Ginn. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  MIDDLE  AGES  :     FEUDALISM  AND  THE  CHURCH 

WHILE  Christianity  was  spreading  throughout  Europe 
and  the  power  of  the  pope  at  Rome  was  growing,  the 
great  Roman  empire  was  falling  to  pieces.  If  you 
will  look  at  the  map  showing  Europe  and  western 
Asia  in  about  the  year  400  A.D.(p.  53),  you  will  find  that 
empire  stretching  all  the  way  from  Scotland  through 
France,  Italy,  Greece,  Palestine,  and  Arabia  to  the 
Persian  Gulf.  It  embraced  all  Europe  west  of  the  Rhine 
and  south  of  the  Danube.  Most  of  the  region  east 
and  north  of  these  rivers  was  inhabited  by  numerous 
tribes  of  whom  little  was  known  except  that  they  were 
warlike  and  barbaric. 

If  you  will  then  contrast  this  map  with  the  other 
one  of  the  same  territory,  showing  the  state  of  things 
about  800  years  later,  namely  1200  A.D.  (facing  p.  116), 
you  will  be  struck  by  the  changes.  The  solid  unit 
of  the  Roman  empire  has  disappeared.  The  map 
of  Europe  looks  instead  like  a  piece  of  patchwork. 
Within  the  borders  of  the  old  Roman  empire  and  to 
the  northeast,  there  have  come  hundreds  of  independent 
states  and  principalities.  Some  of  them  are  so  small 

112 


FEUDALISM    AND    THE    CHURCH  113 

that  they  can  be  shown  only  on  a  large  wall  map.  At 
the  head  of  each  one  is  a  prince  bearing  some  such 
title  as  king,  duke,  count,  or  margrave. 

The  period  between  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the  rise  of 
modern  nations  is  called  the  middle  ages  or  the  medieval 
period.  No  exact  date  can  be  fixed  for  its  beginning  or 
its  end.  It  is  hard  to  say  just  when  the  Roman  empire 
disappeared  because  it  went  to  pieces  so  gradually. 
Neither  is  it  easy  to  say  when  the  modern  period  began. 
Roughly  speaking,  however,  the  period  between  410 
A.D.  and  the  discovery  of  America  may  be  called  here 
the  middle  ages. 

FEUDALISM 

The  Decline  of  Rome.  What  had  happened  in 
the  intervening  years  to  bring  about  such  astounding 
changes  as  these  shown  on  our  maps  ?  First  of  all 
had  been  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  empire  itself.  The 
great  line  of  Roman  emperors  died  out  and  left  no  one 
powerful  enough  to  carry  on  the  task  of  governing 
the  civilized  world.  The  old  Roman  families  that 
had  once  been  leaders  both  in  times  of  war  and  in 
times  of  peace  had  fewer  and  fewer  children  to  follow 
in  their  steps.  Finally  they  almost  disappeared  as 
a  class,  and  no  other  leaders  arose  to  take  their  places. 
The  Roman  farmers,  who  had  once  been  the  mainstay 
of  the  country,  declined  in  numbers.  Those  that 
remained  generally  lost  their  lands  and  became  bond- 
men or  went  into  the  cities  to  swell  the  ranks  of  the 


114        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

poor.  The  army,  formerly  composed  of  free  Roman 
citizens  who  loved  their  country,  became  a  band  of  paid 
soldiers.  Many  of  them  had  come  from  foreign  lands 
and  sold  their  services  to  the  highest  bidder.  They 
sometimes  even  sold  the  office  of  emperor  itself,  for 
they  finally  became  the  masters  of  Rome. 

Moreover,  the  Roman  people  lost  their  old,  simple 
ways  of  living  and  joined  in  a  mad  scramble  for  wealth 
and  luxury.  Sons  and  daughters  of  men  who  had 
once  defended  Rome  or  had  faithfully  served  the 
government,  came  to  think  only  of  rich  food,  expen- 
sive clothes,  exciting  games,  and  idleness.  At  the 
very  time  the  Romans  were  learning  to  prefer  easy 
living,  the  supply  of  slaves  to  do  the  hard  work  fell 
off.  As  the  army  no  longer  conquered  new  peoples, 
the  stream  of  bond  servants  which  had  flowed  into  the 
Roman  slave  market  dried  up.  The  Romans  had 
become  too  spoiled  by  slavery  to  do  the  work  that  the 
slaves  had  done. 

Finally,  the  distant  provinces  began  to  revolt. 
They  had  been  systematically  robbed  by  their  Roman 
governors  and  had  grown  to  hate  these  masters.  The 
army,  which  ceased  to  be  able  to  defend  Rome  itself, 
was  less  able  to  defend  Roman  rule  in  far-off  lands. 

When  the  provinces  dropped  off  one  by  one,  the 
merchants  and  bankers  of  Rome  lost  their  business. 
Their  magnificent  buildings  slowly  decayed.  No  new 
public  monuments  and  palaces  were  erected.  Those 
that  had  once  been  the  grandeur  of  the  Eternal  City 


FEUDALISM    AND    THE    CHURCH  115 

sank  down  to  earth  in  hopeless  wreckage.  Rome 
ceased  to  produce  poets,  orators,  historians,  and  great 
writers  of  every  kind.  The  splendor  of  Rome  was 
gone,  leaving  behind  nothing  but  the  magic  of  her 
great  name. 

The  Germanic  Invasions.  As  the  strength  of 
Rome's  armies  fell  off,  her  enemies  grew  in  number. 
The  Germanic  tribes  beyond  the  Rhine  and  the 
Danube  had  long  beaten  against  Rome's  bor- 
ders. Finally  they  broke  into  the  empire  in  hordes. 

The  barbarian  invasion,  however,  did  not  occur  all 
at  once  or  in  the  same  way.  Thousands  of  Germans 
went  into  the  Roman  empire  very  much  as  immigrants 
come  into  the  United  States  to-day,  singly  and  in  bands. 
They  were  attracted  by  the  opportunities  of  Rome. 
Others  went  because  they  preferred  the  peace  of  the 
empire  to  the  endless  and  cruel  wars  of  their  native 
lands. 

Thousands  of  Germans,  organized  as  tribes  —  Goths, 
Franks,  Angles,  and  Saxons, -- invaded  Roman  terri- 
tory under  powerful  and  daring  chieftains.  One  of 
these  bands,  the  West  Goths,  commanded  by  Alaric, 
even  captured  and  looted  the  city  of  Rome  itself  in 
410  A.D.  Thus  the  very  spot  from  which  Roman 
armies  had  once  gone  forth  to  subdue  the  earth  was 
itself  in  the  hands  of  conquerors.  "  Nations  innumer- 
able and  savage  beyond  measure,"  exclaimed  the 
Christian  monk,  St.  Jerome,  "  have  invaded  all  Gaul. 
The  whole  region  between  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees, 


Il6  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

the  ocean  and  the  Rhine  has  been  devastated.  .  .  . 
O  wretched  empire  !" 

Feudal  Princes.  There  was  now  no  Roman  empire 
stretching  from  Scotland  to  Arabia.  It  is  true  that 
emperors  long  ruled  with  much  pomp  at  the  new  capital, 
Constantinople,  but  they  had  little  influence  on  affairs 
in  Europe.  In  the  place  of  the  western  empire  there 
were  hundreds  of  little  kingdoms  and  principalities. 
There  were  hundreds  of  petty  princes  installed  in 
stone  castles  and  ruling  tiny  domains  by  the  sword. 
The  peace  of  the  Roman  empire  had  gone  and  with 
it  Roman  citizenship,  once  a  thing  of  pride  and 
power.  The  little  states  built  amid  the  ruins  of 
the  empire  were  always  at  war  with  one  another. 
The  inhabitants  of  each  were  forced  to  obey  the  local 
prince,  or  feudal  lord. 

The  system  of  princely  rule,  born  of  warfare,  arose 
in  different  ways.  In  some  cases,  a  German  warrior 
surrounded  himself  with  fighting  men.  They  con- 
quered a  piece  of  Roman  territory.  The  chief  took 
a  large  part  of  the  land  for  himself  and  divided  the 
rest  among  his  followers.  Each  of  his  men  swore 
fealty  and  promised  to  help  the  overlord  in  defending 
their  common  domains. 

In  other  cases,  the  feudal  chieftain  was  a  former 
Roman  citizen  who,  in  the  general  smash  of  his  country, 
rose  to  the  top  as  a  fighting  man  and  leader  of  fighting 
men.  Roman  citizens,  frightened  at  the  general  dis- 
order, flocked  to  him  and  placed  themselves  and  their 


EUROPE 

about   I20O 


FEUDALISM    AND   THE    CHURCH 


117 


lands  under  his  protection.  He  promised  to  defend 
them  and  they,  in  turn,  pledged  themselves  to  aid  him 
with  men  and  money.  Sometimes  one  man  with  his 
followers  swore 
fealty  to  another, 
and  the  latter  with 
all  his  underlings 
would  subject  him- 
self to  a  still  more 
powerful  man. 
Thus  it  happened 
that  B  would  hold 
land  from  A ;  C 
from  B ;  D  from 
C  ;  and  so  on,  mak- 
ing a  long  line  of 
lords  under  a  single 
great  leader. 

The  chief  busi- 
ness of  the  feudal 
lord  was  fighting 
to  get  land  and  to 


FEUDAL  LORDS  FIGHTING 


An  old  print 


keep   it.     Valor   in 

battle  and   loyalty 

to    his    superior,    if    he    had    one,    were    his    striking 

virtues.      By   warfare    he    added    to   his    wealth    and 

increased  his  renown.     Therefore  feudal  princes  were 

engaged  in  endless  conflicts  among  themselves.     For  a 

thousand  years  and  more  Europe  was  given  over  to 


Il8        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

fighting  and  pillaging.  Princely  families  rose,  seized 
huge  territories,  and  in  turn  were  either  conquered  by 
stronger  families  or  completely  destroyed. 

Since  it  was  chiefly  the  strong  who  were  victorious, 
there  slowly  came  to  power  a  few  masterful  men.  They 
made  themselves  the  ruling  monarchs  of  whole  nations, 
like  the  English,  the  French,  and  the  Spanish.  Of 
these  kings  and  their  part  in  history,  we  shall  say  more 
later. 

The  Serf  and  the  Manor.  The  domain  of  a  feudal 
lord,  in  any  part  of  Europe  during  the  middle  ages, 
was  a  single  village  or  collection  of  villages.  It  was 
inhabited  by  peasants  who  tilled  the  soil.  Every 
village,  moreover,  belonged  to  a  lord.  The  villagers 
were  serfs.  Each  man  and  his  family  were  bound  to 
the  village.  They  could  not  leave  it  and  take  up  their 
abode  elsewhere  without  the  consent  of  the  lord.  No 
one  could  marry  without  his  approval.  Each  family 
had  a  certain  amount  of  land,  in  addition  to  a  cottage 
or  hut  and  garden.  For  the  use  of  this  land  the  serf 
family  had  to  pay  the  lord  in  crops  and  in  labor  on  the 
land  which  he  reserved  for  himself.  The  serfs  payment 
in  labor  was  usually  very  heavy.  Often  it  amounted 
to  five  days  a  week  in  harvest  time.  Thus  little  time 
was  left  for  tilling  his  own  soil.  He  could  not  sell  any 
cattle  without  his  lord's  permission.  If  he  committed 
an  offense,  he  was  likely  to  be  tried  and  punished  in  a 
court  held  by  the  lord's  bailiff  or  agent. 

In  exchange  for  these  heavy  duties,  the  serf's  family 


FEUDALISM    AND   THE    CHURCH  119 

had  certain  advantages.  The  lord  was  bound  to  pro- 
tect it  against  invaders.  At  all  events,  the  serf  and 
his  sons  did  not  have  to  render  military  services.  The 


Metropolitan  Museum 
THE  ARMOR  OF  A  FEUDAL  WARRIOR 

family  was,  furthermore,  sure  of  its  cottage  and  plot 
of  ground  and  a  bare  living  if  it  could  be  had  from  the 
land.  The  old  people  were  not  turned  out  to  starve  or 


120  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

carted  off  to  the  poorhouse.  Certain  holidays  ordered 
by  the  Church  broke  the  dull  monotony  of  heavy 
labor  and  gave  opportunities  for  rest  and  festivities, 

When  toil  remitting  lent  its  turn  to  play 

And  all  the  village  train  from  labor  free 

Led  up  their  sports  beneath  the  spreading  tree. 

Still,  at  best,  it  was  a  crude  and  toilsome  life.  The 
cottage  was  merely  four  bare  walls  with  a  thatched 
roof.  No  books  or  papers  enlivened  the  routine  of 
life.  Seldom,  in  fact,  could  a  serf  read  or  write.  Little 
did  he  know  about  the  great  world  beyond  his  horizon. 
Little  did  he  know  about  the  chemistry  of  the  soil  at 
his  feet  or  improving  the  breed  of  his  cattle.  He 
was  not  a  citizen ;  merely  a  subject.  He  was  not 
expected  to  take  any  interest  in  public  affairs  or  to 
hope  for  any  improvement  in  his  lot.  An  old  English 
couplet  about  the  "  squire  "  or  landlord  described  his 
fate  in  simple  words  : 

God  bless  the  squire  and  his  relations 
And  keep  us  all  in  our  proper  stations. 

The  Village.  There  are  many  parts  of  Europe  to-day 
where  one  may  see  a  village  practically  as  it  was  in 
the  middle  ages,  with  a  feudal  castle  standing  in  its 
midst.  From  what  we  can  observe  and  from  books 
and  pictures  that  have  been  saved,  we  can  see  through 
the  mind's  eye  the  medieval  villages. 

Let  us  make  an  imaginary  journey  to  one  of  them 
in  France.  It  is  on  a  plain  at  the  foot  of  a  high  hill. 


FEUDALISM    AND    THE    CHURCH 


121 


The  cottages  are  all  alike.  They  are  small  and 
built  of  stone  or  of  wood  and  plaster.  The  roofs  are 
made  of  thatched  straw.  They  have  no  glass  windows, 
only  small  openings  in  the  walls  fitted  with  heavy 


IN  AN  OLD  FRENCH  VILLAGE  TO-DAY 

wooden  shutters.  The  houses  are  all  huddled  together 
along  a  narrow  unpaved  lane.  The  barns  are  attached 
to  the  houses  and  the  people  live  close  neighbors  to 
the  cows,  horses,  pigs,  and  goats.  In  rainy  weather 
the  lane  is  a  quagmire,  and  in  summer  the  odors  of 
the  village  are  sickening. 

The  rooms  of  each  cottage  are  low  and  dark.     On 


122 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


the  ground  floor  there  is  a  kitchen,  dining  room,  and 
bedroom  combined.  In  the  smoky  fireplace  hangs 
an  iron  pot  in  which  most  of  the  family  cooking  is 
done.  In  a  loft  up  under  the  thatch  is  a  room  in  which 
the  children  sleep.  When  it  rains,  water  leaks  in  upon 
them.  At  best,  it  is  dark  and  airless.  The  food  of 


EUROPEAN  WOMEN  STILL  WASHING  IN  THE  MEDIEVAL  WAY 

the  family  is  simple  and  coarse -- porridge,  soup, 
bread,  and  wine.  Often  all  the  family  eat  out  of  the 
same  pot. 

The  housewife  performs  her  labors  in  the  very  hardest 
way.  She  carries  water  from  a  distant  well  or  stream. 
She  has  few  pots  and  pans  and  dishes.  She  has  to 
"  break  her  back  "  washing  clothes  in  a  near-by  stream, 
and  is  grateful  if  it  is  not  dirtier  than  her  weekly  bundle. 


FEUDALISM  AND  THE  CHURCH  123 

To  her  household  duties,  she  adds  digging,  sowing, 
and  reaping  with  the  men  in  the  fields.  All  through 
the  long  ages  woman  has  carried  this  double  burden. 
She  was  carrying  it  when  Caesar's  legions  marched 
through  her  village  to  conquer  Britain.  She  carried  it 
all  through  the  middle  ages.  She  carries  it  to-day 
as  the  American  tourist,  wrapped  in  a  cloud  of  dust, 
rolls  past  in  his  automobile. 

Outside  the  village  are  the  fields  stretching  away 
in  small  plots.  There  are  also  a  meadow  for  the 
village  cattle  and  a  forest  which  supplies  wood  for 
winter  time.  From  the  hillside  merrily  tumbles  a 
little  stream  of  water,  which  renders  the  village  a 
fourfold  service.  At  the  entrance  of  the  village,  some 
of  it  is  drawn  off  to  a  wooden  trough  from  which  the 
household  needs  of  the  people  are  supplied.  After 
crossing  the  narrow  road  under  a  stone  bridge,  it  turns 
the  landlord's  mill  at  which  the  grain  is  ground.  Then 
it  spreads  out  over  a  pebbly  bottom  where  the  peasants' 
clothes  are  washed.  Finally  it  winds  through  the 
meadow  where  graze  the  village  flocks  and  herds. 

Near  by  is  the  village  church  standing  in  the  yard 
where  sleep  the  dead  of  many  a  century.  On  a  moss- 
covered  stone,  perhaps,  one  may  find  a  striking  epitaph 
written  in  memory  of  some  beloved  one  whose  bones 
were  dust  long  before  America  was  discovered.  In  the 
early  morning,  the  church  bell  announces  the  matin  serv- 
ice. In  the  evening,  it  "tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day." 
On  Sundays,  it  summons  all  the  village  folk  to  service. 


124 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


The  Castle.  High  on  the  rocks  above  the  village 
looms  the  castle  in  which  dwell  the  lord  of  the  village, 
his  family,  and  his  warriors.  On  every  side  massive 


FEUDALISM  AND  THE  CHURCH  125 

walls  rise  straight  from  the  steep  rocks.  At  each  of 
the  corners  is  a  high  tower  where  sentinels  watch  for 
approaching  enemies.  At  the  entrance  is  a  heavy  draw- 
bridge which  is  let  down  over  a  deep  ditch,  or  moat, 
filled  with  water.  Within  the  fortress  is  the  castle  it- 
self. It  is  built  around  a  courtyard.  Its  walls  are  eight 
or  ten  feet  thick,  pierced  here  and  there  by  narrow 
slits  which  let  in  the  only  daylight  the  residents  enjoy. 
In  one  corner  of  the  castle  is  a  great  dining  hall  heated 
in  winter  by  an  immense  fireplace.  On  one  side  is  a 
chapel  in  which  the  lord's  private  chaplain  performs 
religious  services  for  the  family.  In  another  corner 
are  the  sleeping  quarters  of  the  lord  and  his  family 
and  followers,  or  retainers.  Near  the  dining  hall  are 
the  kitchen  and  the  rooms  of  the  army  of  servants. 

Life  in  this  gloomy  pile  is  by  no  means  as  happy  as 
it  often  appears  in  fairy  stories.  Except  in  the  warmest 
summer  weather,  the  rooms  are  cold,  damp,  and  cheer- 
less. Aching  limbs  are  more  common  than  joyful 
hearts.  The  only  light  at  night  is  from  candles  that 
flicker  and  sputter  in  the  ceaseless  drafts  of  chilling  air. 
Musicians  may  enliven  the  evening  meals  with  merry 
strains,  and  a  dance  of  the  knights  and  ladies  may 
follow  the  repast.  On  the  whole,  however,  life  is 
deadly  dull.  The  fighting  men  are  overjoyed  when 
they  are  summoned  to  the  walls  to  defend  the  castle 
against  an  advancing  enemy,  or  are  ordered  in  martial 
array  to  storm  the  stronghold  of  a  neighboring  lord, 
or  to  go  on  a  long  crusade  to  Jerusalem. 


126  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

THE  MEDIEVAL  CHURCH 

The  Conversion  of  the  Barbarians.  While  the 
feudal  lords  were  building  up  their  power,  the  Church 
was  slowly  uniting  them  in  certain  ways.  As  we  have 
seen,  the  Christian  religion  was  adopted  by  the  Roman 
emperors  and  made  the  only  lawful  religion  of  the 
whole  empire.  The  early  apostles  and  teachers  had 
succeeded  beyond  their  dreams ;  but  they  left  to 
those  who  came  after  them  the  task  of  converting  the 
rest  of  the  known  world.  This  work  was  carried  on  by 
missionaries.  For  more  than  two  hundred  years  they 
kept  heroically  at  it,  suffering,  for  their  great  cause, 
hardships  that  beggar  description.  They  went  into 
the  dark  forests  of  Germany.  They  pressed  northward 
till  they  reached  the  ice-locked  lands  of  the  Arctic 
circle.  They  journeyed  westward,  carrying  the  cross 
of  Christ  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  Britain,  Ireland, 
and  the  neighboring  islands. 

Though  the  missionaries  preached  to  the  people  in 
the  highways  and  byways,  they  made  a  special  effort 
to  reach  the  hearts  of  the  barbarian  war  leaders. 
Whenever  a  prince  was  converted,  he  ordered  his 
subjects  baptized  in  his  faith.  Thus,  for  instance,  did 
Clovis,  the  king  of  the  Franks,  who  invaded  ancient 
Gaul.  One  day,  in  496,  while  he  was  in  a  desperate 
battle,  things  were  going  badly  for  him.  As  his  wife 
had  been  converted  to  Christianity  by  some  mission- 
aries, it  occurred  to  him  that  her  God  might  help  him 


FEUDALISM  AND  THE  CHURCH 


127 


in  his  trials.  Thereupon  he  appealed  to  Jesus  for  aid 
and  declared  that,  if  victorious  in  battle,  he  would 
accept  the  Christian  faith.  He  flung  himself  with  re- 
newed energy  into 
the  fray,  and  de- 
feated his  enemies. 
Then,  according 
to  his  pledge,  he 
and  his  warriors, 
numbering,  it  is 
said,  three  thou- 
sand, were  at  once 
baptized.  So  it 
happened  that  the 
missionaries  sub- 
dued the  barba- 
rians and  united 
them  with  Rome 
after  the  Roman 
armies  had  failed. 
About  a  hun- 
dred years  later, 
a  band  of  mission- 
aries under  a  fa- 
mous monk,  Augustine,  landed  on  the  shores  of  Britain. 
That  island,  though  once  Roman,  had  now  been 
conquered  by  the  Angles  and  Saxons  from  the 
German  forests.  The  monks  were  received  by 
Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  who  listened  patiently  to 


From  an  old  print 
ETHELBERT  LISTENING  TO  CHRISTIAN  MISSIONARIES 


128  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

their  sermons.  When  they  asked  him  to  forsake  his 
old  gods,  he  hesitated,  saying :  "  Your  words  are  fair, 
but  they  are  of  new  and  doubtful  meaning."  A  year 
passed  before  he  accepted  the  new  religion.  When  he 
did  decide  at  last  in  favor  of  Christianity,  thousands 
of  his  subjects  flocked  to  the  monks  to  be  baptized. 
Thus  the  conversion  of  the  English  was  begun.  By 
the  year  1000  the  work  of  the  missionaries  in  western 
Europe  was  completed.  Rome  was  again  its  ruler  - 
the  ruler  of  its  mind  and  spirit. 

The  Pope.  At  the  head  of  all  Western  Christendom 
was  the  pope  at  Rome.  His  powers  were  immense. 
He  could  make  laws  which  all  Christians  had  to  obey. 
He  was  a  high  judge  to  whom  Christians  could  appeal 
in  matters  of  religion.  As  the  representative  of  God 
on  earth,  he  claimed  an  authority  far  superior  to  that 
of  mere  earthly  kings.  Indeed,  he  could  free  a  king's 
subjects  from  their  oaths  of  allegiance  and  outlaw  a 
king  before  the  world.  As  head  of  the  Church,  he  owned 
a  vast  amount  of  property  and  drew  huge  revenue 
from  faithful  Christians.  He  had  territories  and  an 
army  and  waged  war  on  kings  and  emperors  in  defense 
of  his  rights  and  powers. 

The  Clergy.  The  affairs  of  the  Church  were  managed 
according  to  carefully  laid  plans.  All  Christendom 
was  laid  out  into  large  districts,  known  as  archbishoprics, 
each  presided  over  by  an  archbishop.  This  great 
domain  was  in  turn  subdivided  into  bishoprics,  at  the 
head  of  each  of  which  was  a  bishop.  The  bishopric 


FEUDALISM  AND  THE  CHURCH 


I29 


was,  in  turn,  composed  of  villages,  each  with  its  church 
and  parish  priest.  All  those  who  labored  officially 
in  the  Church,  from  the  humblest  village  priest  to  the 
pope  at  Rome,  were  known  as  the  clergy  and  formed  a 
distinct  class.  No 
one  could  enter  it 
without  a  special 
training  and  with- 
out having  the  ap- 
proval of  church 
authorities. 

The  powers  of  the 
clergy  were  numer- 
ous and  important. 
They  baptized,  mar- 
ried, and  buried  all 
Christians.  They 
could  impose  cer- 
tain penalties  upon 
church  members  for 
disobedience.  Ac- 
cording to  the  theory 
of  the  Church,  they 
could,  in  effect, 
close  the  gates  of 
heaven  to  the  unfaithful  and  condemn  wrong-doers 
to  everlasting  punishment.  They  alone  could  perform 
the  religious  services  upon  which  the  salvation  of  the 
people  depended.  The  range  of  this  vast  power  was 


From  an  old  print 

THE  SUPREMACY  OF  THE  POPE:  A  KING 
AT  HIS  FEET 


130  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

set  forth  in  a  celebrated  document  published  by  the 
pope  in  1302  :  "  That  there  is  one  holy  Catholic  and 
apostolic  Church  we  are  impelled  by  our  faith  to  believe 
and  hold  .  .  .  and  outside  of  this  there  is  neither 
salvation  nor  remission  of  sins.  .  .  .  We,  moreover, 
proclaim,  declare,  and  pronounce  that  it  is  altogether 
necessary  to  salvation  for  every  human  being  to  be 
subject  to  the  Roman  pontiff." 

In  every  country  the  clergy  owned  a  great  deal  of 
property  —  lands  and  houses  given  to  the  Church  by 
pious  donors.  They  collected  tithes  from  the  people 
for  the  support  of  the  Church.  They  charged  certain 
fees  for  marriages,  burials,  and  other  services.  Taken 
together,  their  wealth  rivaled  that  of  kings  and  nobles. 
They  held  courts  in  which  many  matters,  such  as  dis- 
putes over  property  left  by  dead  men,  were  settled. 
They  were  the  teachers  in  schools  and  they  wrote 
nearly  all  the  books.  In  whole  communities  they  were 
the  only  people  who  knew  how  to  read  or  write ;  who 
knew  anything  outside  the  bare  routine  of  living.  They 
were  the  only  class  dedicated  to  the  work  of  helping 
suffering  mankind,  and  to  them  the  poor  and  afflicted 
turned  for  aid  and  consolation.  Because  of  their 
wealth,  because  of  their  control  over  the  minds  and 
hearts  of  people,  and  because  of  their  services,  the 
clergy  were  very  powerful  during  the  middle  ages. 

The  Monks  and  Nuns.  In  the  early  days  of 
Christianity  many  men  grew  weary  of  the  troubles 
of  the  world  and  withdrew  to  solitary  places  to  live 


FEUDALISM  AND  THE  CHURCH  131 

simply  and  think  only  of  religious  matters.  Such 
persons  were  known  as  monks  —  a  term  derived  from  a 
Greek  word  meaning  "  solitary."  Often  a  number  of 
them  would  join  in  a  brotherhood  and  build  for  them- 
selves a  house  or  monastery  in  some  secluded  spot. 

From  time  to  time  there  arose  new  leaders  who 
preached  a  new  gospel  of  Christian  duty  and  collected 
followers  about  them.  Among  such  leaders  was  St. 
Benedict,  who  founded  the  order  of  Benedictine  monks 
in  Italy  about  529.  Another  was  St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
who  established  the  Franciscan  order  in  1210.  A 
third  was  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  Spanish  soldier  and  priest, 
who  planned  in  1534  the  Society  of  Jesus,  the  members 
of  which  are  known  as  Jesuits. 

Somewhat  in  the  same  way,  women  often  dedicated 
themselves  to  a  religious  life  as  nuns.  They  founded 
convents  where  they  lived  and  worked.  They  too  had 
many  different  orders  as  new  teachers  appeared  from 
time  to  time. 

It  is  impossible  to  describe  in  a  paragraph  the  work 
of  the  monks  and  nuns,  for  their  labors  varied  according 
to  their  several  purposes.  Some  took  vows  of  poverty 
and  devoted  themselves  to  helping  the  unfortunate. 
Others  were  missionaries  to  the  heathen.  Others 
spent  their  time  laboring  on  their  lands,  copying  or 
writing  books,  or  making  beautiful  tapestries  and  laces. 
To  their  care  we  owe  the  preservation  of  most  of  the 
books  that  have  come  down  to  us  from  Greek  and 
Roman  times. 


132  OUR   OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Only  within  the  walls  of  the  monastery  or  convent 
could  those  who  were  heartily  sick  of  the  endless  feudal 
wars  find  peace.  Only  there  could  they  have  freedom 
to  live  lives  of  scholarship  and  helpfulness.  In  time, 
every  country  in  Europe  was  dotted  with  monasteries 
and  convents.  The  various  orders  grew  rich  with 
gifts  made  to  them  by  pious  persons. 

The  Laymen.  All  the  people  outside  the  clerical 
class  were  known  as  laymen.  They  were  all  subject 
to  the  rules  and  laws  of  the  Church.  All  were  church 
members,  for  no  one  was  allowed  to  choose  his  own 
faith  or  to  say  that  he  would  have  none  at  all.  All 
had  to  attend  church  and  to  give  money  to  its  support. 
No  one  could  dispute  or  even  question  the  authority 
of  the  clergy.  Any  one  who  was  bold  enough  to  deny 
the  Catholic  faith  was  summoned  before  a  court  and 
tried  as  a  heretic.  If  he  confessed  that  he  was  in  error, 
he  was  received  back  into  the  Church  but  forced  to  do 
a  heavy  penance.  If  he  refused  to  confess  that  he 
was  wrong,  he  was  handed  over  to  the  government  to 
be  punished. 

In  religion,  therefore,  as  in  other  matters,  the  common 
people  of  the  middle  ages  were  subject  to  higher  author- 
ities. They  did  not  elect  the  lord  of  the  village  who 
governed  them.  Neither  did  they  elect  the  village 
priest  who  had  the  care  of  their  souls  in  his  charge. 
Great  teachers  of  the  Church,  like  St.  Thomas  Aquinas, 
held  that  the  people  would  begin  to  quarrel  unless 
bound  together  by  some  one  of  superior  rank.  They 


FEUDALISM  AND  THE  CHURCH 


133 


taught  that  "  the  rule  of  one  is  more  beneficial  than 
the  rule  of  many."     At  the  same  time,  they  also  said 
that    it     was     the 
duty  of  the  ruler  to 
consider    the   good 
of  his  subjects. 

The  Unity  of 
Christendom.  Per- 
haps the  most  re- 
markable feature 
of  the  medieval 
Church  was  its 
unity.  All  na- 
tions, all  races,  all 
sorts  and  condi- 
tions of  people  in 
western  Europe 
were  brought  to- 
gether by  this  one 
religious  bond. 
There  was  one 
head  of  the  Church. 
There  was  onefaith. 
There  was  one  language,  both  for  the  services  of  the 
Church  and  the  learning  of  the  clergy.  That  was 
Latin.  Those  who  could  speak  Latin  were  equally  at 
home  with  the  priests  of  London,  Paris,  or  Rome. 
There  was  one  law  of  the  Church  for  all  Christians. 
There  was  one  Christian  ideal  set  before  mankind.  In 


From  an  old  print 
ONE  LAW  FOR  ALL  CHRISTIANS 


134  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

this  respect,  therefore,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
kept  alive  one  idea  of  the  Roman  empire  —  a  world 
united  under  one  great  authority. 

The  Church  as  a  Check  on  the  Government.  Though 
the  medieval  clergy  were  friendly  to  kings  and  feudal 
princes,  still  they  strongly  held  to  their  own  rights 
and  property.  In  this,  Christianity  differed  from  all 
the  religions  of  antiquity.  In  Rome  and  Greece,  the 
priests  were  servants  of  the  government.  They  took 
orders  ;  they  did  not  give  orders.  No  Roman  priest 
in  pagan  days  ever  thought  of  telling  the  emperor 
his  duty.  The  popes  and  clergy  of  the  middle  ages, 
on  the  contrary,  often  assumed  the  right  to  criticize 
the  conduct  of  kings  and  their  officers  and  to  call  them 
to  account  for  their  misdeeds.  In  this  way  the  Church 
became  a  sort  of  restraint  on  the  government,  a  critic 
of  the  civil  officers.  This  was  a  great  departure  from 
the  state  of  things  that  had  lasted  for  centuries  among 
the  nations  of  antiquity.  In  time,  as  we  shall  see, 
the  clergy  and  some  of  the  kings  had  a  great  quarrel 
on  this  point.  This  quarrel  ended  in  breaking  Western 
Christendom  apart. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.  Suppose  that  you  had  been  a  Roman  citizen  at  the 
time  of  Rome's  greatness,  and  suppose  that  you  then  knew 
what  we  now  know  of  the  causes  that  led  to  the  decline  and  fall  of 
Rome ;  what  advice  would  you  have  given  to  your  countrymen  ? 
2.  One  of  the  great  lessons  that  history  teaches  is  that  slavery 
is  even  worse  for  the  masters  than  for  the  slaves ;  why  does  slav- 


FEUDALISM  AND  THE  CHURCH  135 

ery  have  so  unfortunate  an  effect  upon  slave  owners  ?  Lincoln 
once  said  :  "As  I  would  not  be  a  slave,  so  I  would  not  be  a  mas- 
ter. That  is  my  idea  of  democracy."  Can  you  think  of  any 
other  things  besides  holding  slaves  that  a  true  believer  in  de- 
mocracy would  not  do?  3.  Try  to  imagine  what  life  in  your 
state  would  be  like  if  the  feudal  system  of  the  middle  ages  were 
still  in  existence.  Think  of  yourself  as  a  farmer  living  under 
such  conditions.  You  would  probably  live  in  a  village  and  go 
out  with  other  farmers  to  work  in  the  surrounding  fields  every 
day.  How  does  this  differ  from  the  way  in  which  most  Ameri- 
can farmers  live  to-day  ?  Why  did  nearly  every  one  live  in  towns 
or  villages  in  feudal  times  ?  What  rights  and  privileges  do  free 
citizens  have  to-day  that  the  serfs  of  feudal  times  did  not  have  ? 
What  duties  do  free  citizens  have  that  serfs  did  not  have  ? 

II.  i.  "While  the  feudal  lords  were  building  up  their  power,  the 
Church  was  slowly  uniting  them  in  certain  ways"  (p.  126).  Ex- 
plain this  statement  and  tell  in  what  ways  the  Church  united  the 
people  living  in  western  Europe.  2.  Give  as  many  reasons  as 
you  can  explaining  why  the  clergy  had  so  much  power  in  the 
middle  ages.  3.  What  are  the  differences  in  the  meanings  of 
the  following  words  :  bishops,  priests,  monks,  and  nuns ;  mon- 
asteries and  convents;  clergy  and  laymen?  4.  In  western  Eu- 
rope during  the  middle  ages  there  were  many  governments  and 
many  languages,  but  only  one  religion ;  how  does  this  condition 
contrast  with  the  condition  of  our  country  to-day?  5.  What 
is  meant  by  the  word  Christendom  ?  (Think  of  other  words  that 
have  the  same  ending,  such  as  kingdom,  earldom,  dukedom.) 
Though  all  the  nations  of  Europe  to-day,  except  Turkey,  are 
Christian  nations,  could  we  properly  speak  of  Europe  as  Chris- 
tendom ?  Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

I.  i.  Why  can  the  Roman  empire  be  shown  on  a  one-page 
map  while  medieval  Europe  (a  much  smaller  territory)  requires 


136        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

a  two-page  map?  2.  On  p.  112  you  are  asked  to  compare  the 
map  of  the  Roman  empire  (p.  53)  with  the  map  of  medieval 
Europe  facing  p.  116.  Compare  it  also  with  the  map  of  modern 
Europe  facing  p.  436.  Name  the  chief  medieval  and  modern 
countries  that  are  included  in,  or  that  include,  the  following  prov- 
inces of  the  Roman  empire  :  Gaul,  Dacia,  Illyricum,  Italy,  Thrace. 
3.  On  p.  115  St.  Jerome  is  quoted  as  complaining  of  the  invasion 
of  Rome  by  various  barbarous  tribes.  Would  you  expect  to  be 
able  to  locate  all  these  tribes  on  any  one  map  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

BENEZET,  L.  P. —  The  Story  of  the  Map  of  Europe,   ii-vi ;  Scott 

Foresman. 

BEST,  S.  M. —  The  Nations  of  Western  Europe;  Macmillan. 
HALL,  HAMMOND  —  The  Boy's  Book  of  Chivalry,  i-ix  ;    Partridge. 
O'NEILL,  ELIZABETH —  The  Story  of  the  World,  xvi-xx ;   Putnam. 
TAPPAN,   EVA   M.  —  When  Knights   Were  Bold,   i-ix ;   Hough  ton 

Mifflin. 
VAN  LOON  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  xxvi-xxxviii. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  ARTS  AND  TOWN   LIFE   IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

MORE  than  a  thousand  years  lay  between  the  sack 
of  Rome  by  Alaric  in  410  and  the  discovery  of  America 
by  Columbus.  During  a  large  part  of  this  time, 
all  Europe  was  in  the  confusion  that  followed  the 
barbarian  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire.  Man- 
kind was  busy  with  migrations,  wars,  feuds,  and  the 
bare  struggle  for  existence.  In  the  midst  of  this  chaos, 
the  Catholic  Church  offered  unity,  order,  and  peace. 
The  priests  and  others  in  the  service  of  the  Church 
found  the  means  or  the  leisure  for  cultivating  the 
finer  things  of  the  human  spirit.  In  contrast  to  the 
varied  interests  of  Greece  and  Rome,  there'  was  in  the 
middle  ages  one  supreme  interest  —  the  Christian  re- 
ligion as  interpreted  by  the  Catholic  Church.  All  art, 
all  architecture,  all  literature,  all  learning,  bore  the 
stamp  of  religion.  Everything  was  viewed  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  Catholic  Christian  faith.  That  is 
the  striking  feature  of  the  middle  ages. 

ARCHITECTURE,  ART,  AND  LEARNING 

Medieval  Architecture.  As  the  Greeks  devoted  their 
noblest  energies  to  erecting  temples,  so  the  people  of 

137 


138 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


the  middle  ages  devoted  theirs  to  building  beautiful 
churches.     Christian  congregations,   as  soon    as    their 


worship   became   lawful,   moved   into   the   temples   of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  after  tearing  down  the  statues 


ARTS  AND  TOWN  LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES     139 

of  the  old  gods  and  making  alterations.  When  they 
began  to  build  for  themselves  in  western  Europe, 
they  frequently  adopted  Roman  models ;  and  the 
style  of  many  early  Christian  churches  is  for  that 
reason  called  Romanesque.  Such  structures  were 
marked  by  massive  walls  and  low  roofs.  They  were 
heavy  and  lacking  in  grace. 

In  the  course  of  time,  architects  devised  a  new  style 
known  as  Gothic.  They  learned  how  to  build  high, 
thin  walls,  supported  by  buttresses  on  the  outside. 
Their  work  thus  became  more  flexible.  They  could 
construct  lofty,  vaulted  roofs  and  towering  spires  that 
pointed  heavenward.  Instead  of  narrow  slits  for 
windows,  they  could  make  great  openings  and  fill 
them  with  delicate  traceries  of  stone,  lead,  and  stained 
glass.  Therefore  we  see  great  differences  in  the  Gothic 
style.  Some  cathedrals  were  massive,  severe,  and 
stately.  Others  were  slender  and  ornate,  like  fine 
lace  work. 

In  religious  buildings,  architects  had  the  greatest 
opportunities  for  creative  work,  because  the  middle 
ages  lavished  money  mainly  upon  beautiful  churches. 
Yet  there  was  other  work  to  do.  There  were  splendid 
castles  to  be  built  for  feudal  lords.  Occasionally, 
also,  they  were  called  upon  to  build  town  houses  for 
merchant  princes.  Wonderful  examples  of  this  form 
of  architecture  are  to  be  found  in  Venice  and  Florence. 
Sometimes  they  were  employed  by  unions,  or  gilds,  of 
merchants,  like  the  clothiers  or  goldsmiths,  to  erect 


140 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


a  gild  hall  in  which  the  members  could  hold  their 
meetings.  There  were  some  public  buildings,  too, 
like  town  halls  and  royal  palaces.  In  planning  them 
the  medieval  architect  had  a  chance  to  make  new 
designs.  Whether  the  noblest  work  of  the  middle 


ST.  MARKS,  IN  VENICE  (SHOWING  BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE) 

ages  was  better  than  that  of  the  Greeks,  each  one  can 
judge  for  himself  by  comparing  a  Gothic  cathedral 
with  a  Greek  temple. 

Art.  In  painting,  as  well  as  in  architecture,  the 
artists  of  the  middle  ages  worked  out  many  new  and 
interesting  ideas.  This  is  true,  even  though  in  later 


ARTS  AND  TOWN  LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES     141 

times  they  often  copied  the  gorgeous  colors,  the  gold 
and  glitter,  that  came  into  Italy  from  Constantinople. 
In  most  cases  they  chose  for  their  subjects  Biblical 
characters  and  scenes.  They  took  infinite  pains  in 
portraying  their  ideas  of  the  Madonna,  of  Christ,  and 
of  interesting  events  in  the  growth  of  the  Church. 

For  color,  form,  and  beauty,  their  work  stands  out 
among  the  splendid  artistic  achievements  of  all  times. 
Moreover,  there  were  so  many  painters  of  high  grade 
and  they  painted  so  many  pictures  that  it  is  hardly 
just  to  mention  any  of  them  without  giving  a  long  list. 
Giotto  (1276-1337)  is  distinguished  as  the  founder  of 
the  Florentine  school  of  painters.  Michael  Angelo 
(1475-1564)  is  famous  as  the  decorator  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel  in  Rome,  which  may  yet  be  seen  in  its  fading, 
but  still  wonderful,  splendor.  Even  in  Angelo's  time, 
the  painting  was  mainly  religious  ;  but  more  and  more 
the  artists  were  painting  secular,  or  non-religious,  scenes 
and  portraits  of  eminent  laymen. 

•  Literature.  In  literature,  as  in  art  and  architecture, 
religion  stood  first.  For  many  a  century  after  the 
decline  of  Rome,  there  were  no  great  poets  and  dram- 
atists. The  educated  people,  nearly  all  of  whom  were 
priests,  thought  chiefly  of  religious  subjects.  They 
wrote  lives  of  the  saints  and  martyrs  whose  labors  and 
sacrifices  had  helped  to  spread  the  gospel  throughout 
the  world.  They  compiled  great  works  on  the  theories 
of  religion  and  on  the  problems  of  Christian  conduct. 
They  composed  long  books  on  the  Bible.  They  worked 


142        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

out  all  sorts  of  theories  as  to  the  nature  of  angels 
and  the  doings  of  Satan.  Even  when  they  wrote  on 
business  matters,  such  as  money-lending  and  selling 
goods,  they  looked  at  the  subject  from  the  religious 
point  of  view.  This  led  them  to  treat  fully  "  just 
prices  "  for  goods  and  "  the  sin  of  usury,"  or  high 
interest  rates. 

When  at  length  there  appeared  a  great  poet,  the 
Italian  Dante  (1265-1321),  his  theme  was  still  reli- 
gious. Dante's  greatest  work  was  his  Divine  Comedy, 
in  which  he  drew  vivid  pictures  of  hell,  purgatory, 
and  heaven.  This  was  at  once  hailed  as  a  masterpiece. 
It  is  still  read  to-day.  It  was  unique  because  it  was 
written  in  the  language  of  the  people,  Italian,  instead 
of  Latin,  the  language  of  the  learned.  Few  European 
poets,  certainly  no  medieval  writers,  are  now  more 
widely  studied  in  the  United  States  than  is  Dante. 
Two  great  translations  have  been  made  by  American 
scholars,  one  of  them  by  the  poet  Henry  Wadsworth 
Longfellow,  who  organized  the  first  Dante  society  in 
America. 

Next  in  bulk  to  works  on  religion  and  the  lives  of 
saints  stood  histories  and  chronicles.  Of  these  every 
European  country  produced  a  great  quantity  during 
the  middle  ages.  Almost  every  monastery  kept  a 
chronicle  or  record  of  events  by  years ;  from  time  to 
time  some  monk  would  undertake  to  compile  a  story 
of  mankind  from  Adam  to  his  own  day.  Most  of  these 
medieval  historical  works  are  queer  mixtures  of  truth 


ARTS  AND  TOWN  LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES     143 

and  fiction.  They  tell  of  wars,  of  the  work  of  the  clergy, 
of  the  fortunes  of  kings  and  queens,  of  gifts  to  churches, 
and  of  the  adventures  of  mythical  heroes. 

Take,  for  example,  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.  It 
purports  to  be  a  history  by  years  from  about  the  birth 
of  Christ  to  the  twelfth  century,  telling  especially 
about  England.  It  was  written  by  many  men,  partly 
from  rumor,  partly  from  books,  and  partly  from  actual 
knowledge.  Most  of  it  is  devoted  to  wars  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons  and  to  the  affairs  of  the  Christian  Church 
in  England.  Some  years  the  chronicler  can  find  nothing 
important  to  write  down,  so  he  enters  the  year  and 
leaves  a  blank  space.  In  671,  he  can  only  say  :  "  This 
year  was  a  great  destruction  among  birds  " ;  but 
this  at  least  is  a  change  from  tales  of  war  and  piracy. 
In  734,  we  are  told  :  "  This  year  the  moon  was  as  if  it 
had  been  sprinkled  with  blood."  In  793,  some  one 
wrote  :  "  Fiery  dragons  were  seen  flying  in  the  air." 

Other  historical  works  were  ballads  reciting  the 
brave  deeds  of  kings.  These  were  often  sung  at  court 
to  please  the  monarch  who  was  praised  by  the  bard. 
In  none  of  them  do  we  get  a  clear  and  full  picture  of 
all  classes  or  of  the  life  of  the  masses.  It  is  mainly 
from  laws,  account  books,  tax  records,  and  similar 
documents  that  we  are  able  to  form  a  correct  idea  of 
how  the  people  of  the  middle  ages  lived  in  their  towns 
and  villages.  Medieval  history  did  not  deal  with  the 
doings  of  the  common  people ;  nor  was  it  written  for 
their  benefit. 


144  OUR  .OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

In  addition  to  religious  and  historical  works,  there 
was  some  writing  about  the  government  of  mankind. 
The  poet  Dante,  though  his  fame  rests  almost  entirely 
upon  his  poetry,  was  an  able  writer  on  politics.  He 
believed  that  peace  was  necessary  to  draw  out  the 
noblest  side  of  human  beings  ;  so  he  advocated  forming 
an  empire  again,  in  some  respects  like  that  of  old  Rome. 
At  least  he  thought  there  should  be  one  high  imperial 
ruler  who  would  restrain  robbers  and  warriors  and  per- 
mit the  people  to  live  and  work  in  comfort.  In  Dante's 
time  there  also  lived  another  noted  political  writer, 
Marsiglio  of  Padua.  This  author  startled  the  educated 
classes  by  saying  (i)  that  the  purpose  of  government 
was  "the  good  of  the  people";  (2)  that  the  whole 
body  of  the  citizens  "  or  the  better  part  of  them  " 
should  be  the  supreme  law-makers ;  and  (3)  that 
even  popes  should  be  elected  by  the  people.  Indeed, 
there  were  very  few  themes  that  were  not  touched 
upon  by  medieval  writers  in  one  form  or  another. 

Schools  and  Universities.  It  was  a  long  time  after 
the  fall  of  Rome  before  there  appeared  in  Europe 
schools,  colleges,  and  universities  with  regular  teachers, 
students,  and  courses  of  study.  Practically  all  the 
teaching  that  went  on  during  the  dark  days  of  the 
barbarian  invasions  was  the  work  of  individual  priests 
and  missionaries.  They  instructed  a  few  followers 
in  order  to  spread  the  knowledge  of  Christianity. 

The  first  schools  that  deserve  the  name  seem  to  have 
been  founded  by  wealthy  bishops  at  their  cathedrals. 


ARTS   AND  TOWN   LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES     145 

The  main  purpose  of  such  a  school  was  to  prepare  for 
the  priesthood ;  but  sometimes  it  was  attended  by 
young  princes  who  wished  to  master  the  art  of  reading 
and  writing.  King  Alfred  (below,  p.  172),  we  are  told 
by  a  monk  of  his  time,  set  a  good  example ;  he  sent 
his  youngest  son  to  a  school  to  learn  "  the  liberal  arts 
before  the  manly  arts,  namely,  hunting  and  such  pur- 
suits as  befit  a  gentleman."  By  the  year  1500  Europe 
had  scores  of  cathedral  schools.  Good  bishops  regarded 
it  as  both  a  duty  and  an  honor  to  give  money  to  them. 

To  these  institutions  the  sons  of  peasants  and  mer- 
chants came  to  prepare  for  the  priesthood.  That 
was  the  one  career  through  which  they  could  rise  out 
of  their  classes  into  the  higher  ranks.  When  a  serf 
became  a  priest  he  was  freed  from  servitude.  Feudal 
lords  often  became  angry  at  losing  their  bondmen, 
but  the  bishops  paid  little  heed.  They  were  always 
glad  to  welcome  bright  boys  from  the  peasantry  because 
the  Church  had  need  of  able  and  vigorous  men  to  carry 
on  its  varied  work. 

As  the  towns  grew  in  size,  rich  merchants  founded 
grammar  schools  to  teach  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic. These  institutions  were  open  to  boys  preparing 
for  business  as  well  as  to  those  who  planned  to  enter 
the  ministry. 

With  the  passing  years,  schools  for  more  advanced 
studies  were  also  established.  The  college  or  univer- 
sity arose  in  the  middle  ages  somewhat  in  this  fashion. 
It  was  the  practice  of  missionaries  and  learned  men  to 


146  OUR  OLD   WORLD   BACKGROUND 

go  about  teaching,  stopping  in  one  town  after  another 
to  instruct  any  who  cared  to  listen.  One  taught  the 
Old  Testament,  another  grammar,  and  a  third  mathe- 
matics. In  a  very  natural  way,  teachers  of  different 
subjects  began  to  gather  at  certain  centers,  like  Paris 
or  Oxford.  This  was  a  great  saving  of  time  for  students 
and  masters,  because  all  subjects  could  be  studied  at 
one  place. 

The  next  step  was  easily  taken.  The  teachers  and 
students  of  a  given  city  formed  a  society  or  union  or 
gild  known  in  Latin  as  a  collegium  or  universitas. 
When  that  was  once  done,  it  was  a  simple  matter  to 
arrange  a  regular  course  of  study  through  which  any 
pupil  had  to  pass  in  order  to  become  a  master  himself. 
Indeed,  one  became  "  a  master  of  arts  "  as  one  became 
a  master  mason,  except  that  an  apprenticeship  was 
served  in  learning  rather  than  in  stone  cutting. 

At  first  there  were  no  splendid  buildings.  Each 
teacher  would  rent  or  find  a  vacant  room  and  lecture 
there.  The  chief  subjects  of  study  were  Latin,  gram- 
mar, arithmetic,  and  the  writings  of  the  famous  Greek 
philosopher,  Aristotle  (p.  95).  There  were  no  printed 
books  for  the  students.  The  teacher  simply  read 
his  lectures  slowly  while  the  pupils  laboriously  copied 
his  sayings  word  for  word.  Nothing  contrary  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Church  was  allowed.  Great  pains 
were  taken  to  show  that  there  was  nothing  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  pagan  Aristotle  that  was  contrary  to  the 
Bible  or  Christianity.  Of  the  vast  range  of  subjects 


ARTS  AND  TOWN  LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES     147 

like  chemistry,  botany,  physiology,  geography,  and 
history,  very  little  was  said  in  the  medieval  universities. 

The  Revival  of  Ancient  Learning.  About  the  year 
1400  there  opened  a  new  period  in  the  history  of  learn- 
ing. The  learning  of  the  early  middle  ages,  as  we  have 
seen,  had  nearly  all  been  in  the  Latin  language.  Books 
were  written  in  it ;  it  was  the  tongue  used  in  the  class- 
rooms all  over  western  Europe.  Some  of  the  Greek 
writings  were  in  constant  use,  but  in  Latin  translations. 
Greek  literature  as  a  whole  and  most  of  the  literature 
of  the  Romans  had  been  allowed  to  lie  buried  in  the 
dust  of  old  buildings.  The  Greek  language  itself  was 
not  understood  by  students  in  western  Europe.  Many 
of  the  ancient  writings  were  not  approved  by  Christian 
teachers  because  they  were  the  work  of  scholars  who 
lived  before  Christ. 

Slowly  this  changed.  The  learning  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  was  made  to  live  again.  In  the  year 
1396,  a  famous  bishop  went  from  Constantinople  to 
Florence  and  began  to  teach  the  Greek  language  and 
literature.  Pupils  flocked  to  him  ;  soon  some  ventured 
to  go  to  Constantinople  itself  to  study. 

When  that  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  in 
1453,  Greek  scholars  fled  in  crowds  to  Italy,  taking 
their  precious  books  with  them.  The  merchants  of 
Venice  and  Florence  were  proud  to  carry  cargoes  of 
manuscripts  along  with  their  bales  of  silks  and  spices 
from  the  Far  East. 

Soon  the  Italian  cities  were  the  homes  of  "  a  new 


148 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


ammriad  <U  wnto  a  ibti  r|b-4lod  atuike  fttw 


W  acfljh  or  mptb  U 

auicntcs 

4itU  jf  rOJiutrx)  -  p.»  qu<r  rto  |t  latrttcfcn  en 
(cm  c  ]amr  1  1  uf5  iani»ui  .  bd  q.nato  nt^ttu»t  CHI^U  aiotro  Uwpzr  m  ic 
ke  cuattclcaciirr^  ji  fu:  «ui  wm  cv  cncmifpw  cvfpuctJ  qcu:  uru|au 
cutrcptdib-  ic»  vjtu:  fw  a-rcdwcv 

com  nni*r/c  en  Ottx)  tttgar  .  COCM  a-itcbtto  a-  fi-ar  cui  tcftrtu 
^.t  .7  la  cobotcut  a-  ciptut^j*  cut  qud>£Uteuvt  -.1/71  *  cfci 


ai»aio  /Itfho*  aicnr.i  .1  ii)u  tr( 


Metropolitan  Museum 
PAGE  OF  A  MEDIEVAL  BOOK  MADE  BY  HAND 


ARTS   AND  TOWN  LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES     149 

learning."  About  the  same  time  interest  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  ancient  Romans  was  awakened.  The  books 
and  papers  of  Caesar,  Cicero,  and  Tacitus  were  rescued 
from  the  dust  where  they  had  long  been  buried,  and 
spread  far  and  wide  in  many  editions. 

Thus  a  new  world  of  ideas  and  historical  events  was 
opened  to  students  everywhere.  People  began  to  care 
for  ancient,  or  pagan,  literature  as  well  as  for  Christian 
writings.  Scholars  soon  read  the  poems  of  Vergil  as 
well  as  the  Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount.  The  stately  orations  of  Cicero 
found  a  place  by  the  side  of  the  lives  of  early  Christian 
saints  and  martyrs. 

The  Invention  of  Printing.  While  the  students  of 
Europe  were  in  a  furor  about  Greek  and  Roman  writ- 
ings, some  patient  workmen  invented  movable  type 
and  the  printing  press.  Before  that  time  every  boo  : 
had  to  be  made  laboriously  by  copyists  with  quill  or 
brush.  The  process  was  slow  and  expensive.  Innu- 
merable errors  crept  in  as  one  copy  was  made  from 
another.  With  movable  type,  any  book  could  be 
put  into  type  almost  as  quickly  as  the  old  copyist 
could  write  it  down.  Once  in  type  and  on  the  press, 
any  number  of  copies  could  easily  be  printed. 

Just  who  it  was  that  deserves  the  honor  of  inventing 
printing  we  know  not.  Gutenberg  and  Faust  in  Ger- 
many and  Coster  in  Holland  are  among  those  to  whom 
the  credit  has  been  given.  As  in  the  case  of  most  inven- 
tions, the  idea  was  in  the  air  and  many  men  were  at 


ISO 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


work  on  it.  We  do  know,  however,  that  a  Bible  was 
printed  at  Mainz,  Germany,  in  1456.  That  year  may 
well  be  taken  as  opening  the  age  of  the  printing  press. 

Within  fifty 
years  printing 
presses  were  set 
up  in  most  of  the 
leading  cities,  and 
it  was  estimated 
that  eight  million 
volumes  had  been 
printed.  Books 
became  cheap.  In- 
terest in  reading 
spread  steadily 
among  the  people. 
Printers  were 
eager  to  publish 
books  on  any  sub- 
ject that  might 
find  a  sale.  Books 
on  travel,  on  law, 

on  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  on  farm  manage- 
ment, on  geography,  and  on  medicine  began  to  flow 
from  the  presses.  Learning  was  no  longer  confined 
to  the  clergy  nor  almost  solely  to  religious  subjects. 
After  a  while  books  were  made  even  for  children. 


OLD  HOUSES  IN  ROUEN  (FRANCE) 


ARTS    AND    TOWN    LIFE    IN    THE    MIDDLE    AGES      151 

TOWN  LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

Growth  of  Towns.  It  was  mainly  in  the  towns  that 
the  art  and  learning  of  the  middle  ages  flourished. 
Many  a  Roman  city  had  lived  on  after  the  fall  of  the 
empire,  and  in  the  course  of  time  new  centers  of  trade 
also  had  arisen  all  over  western  Europe.  Sometimes 
the  town  was  under  the  protection  of  a  powerful  feudal 
lord  or  even  of  a  king.  Sometimes  it  was  under  the 
rule  of  a  bishop  or  archbishop.  Again  it  happened 
that  the  city  and  its  inhabitants  were  wholly  in- 
dependent. In  most  cases,  the  people  built  a  wall 
about  their  city  and  were  ready  to  defend  it  against 
attack. 

In  England,  the  towns  of  London,  York,  Lincoln, 
Winchester,  and  Bristol  were  leading  centers  of  trade 
as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century.  In  Germany, 
there  were  many  wholly  independent  towns,  or  free 
cities,  among  them  Cologne  and  Hamburg.  For  mu- 
tual aid,  a  score  or  more  of  them  formed  a  union 
known  as  the  Hanseatic  League. 

Such  trading  cities  grew  more  rapidly  and  easily 
in  Italy  than  elsewhere.  Because  of  their  situation 
between  the  East  and  the  West,  the  Italians  early  be- 
came the  leading  merchants  of  Europe.  From  India 
and  China  they  brought  spices,  precious  stones,  and 
rich  fabrics.  They  carried  these  goods  by  land  or 
water  to  the  trading  towns  of  Spain,  France,  Germany, 
and  England.  On  the  east  coast  rose  Venice,  "  the 


'52 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


queen  of  the  Adriatic,"  built  upon  a  group  of  small 
islands  for  protection  against  invaders  ;  Venice  in  time 
became  rich  and  powerful.  On  the  west  coast  there 
flourished  a  rival  in  Genoa,  the  nursery  of  hardy  sail- 
ors, and  the  birthplace  of  Columbus.  Pisa,  Florence, 


TRADING  CENTERS  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

and   Milan  were  also  centers  of  commerce,   art,   and 
literature. 

The  Merchants.  It  was  in  the  towns  that  there 
grew  up  the  class  of  merchants  and  business  men  who 
were  in  time  to  have  more  wealth  and  influence  than 
the  feudal  lords.  As  trade  increased,  the  merchants 


ARTS  AND  TOWN  LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES         153 

amassed  great  sums  of  money.  They  then  began  to 
take  an  interest  in  many  things  outside  of  business. 
They  vied  with  bishops,  popes,  and  princes  in  encourag- 
ing art.  They  gave  money  to  painters  and  sculptors 
and  thus  enabled  them  to  devote  all  their  time  to  their 
work.  Merchants  also  sent  their  sons  to  college. 
They  bought  books  and  the  beautiful  manuscripts 
made  by  monks.  They  founded  schools  and  libraries. 
They  lent  money  to  hard-pressed  kings  and  some- 
times became  their  advisers 

The  Merchant  Gilds.  The  power  of  the  merchants 
was  increased  by  their  unions.  In  each  town,  they 
formed  a  society  or  gild  (p.  140).  Often  it  happened 
that  the  gild  members  were  the  only  voters  in  the  town  ; 
in  that  case,  they  managed  the  town  government. 
The  gild  was  both  a  business  and  a  charitable  society. 
It  laid  down  rules  about  the  price  and  quality  of  goods 
and  it  aided  its  sick  and  unfortunate  members.  No 
one  could  carry  on  business  in  the  town  without  its 
consent.  No  new  shops  could  be  opened  without 
its  approval. 

The  Artisans.  The  towns  were  also  the  homes  of 
the  artisans -- weavers,  smiths,  and  the  like  —  who 
made  the  goods  which  the  merchants  bought  and  sold. 
Though  business  had  fallen  off  in  the  days  of  Rome's 
decline,  the  arts  of  manufacture  were  by  no  means 
lost.  With  the  spread  of  Christianity,  encourage- 
ment was  given  to  craftsmen  of  every  kind.  The 
building  of  churches,  cathedrals,  and  monasteries  called 


154 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


for  great  skill.  The  gorgeous  robes  of  the  priests 
and  bishops  and  the  decorations  of  the  churches  show 
how  clever  were  the  men  and  women  who  made  them. 

Many  of  the 
monks  spent  all 
their  time  making 
locks,  artistic  iron 
work,  or  wood 
carvings. 

Moreover,  the 
Christian  Church 
promoted  honest 
work  by  teaching 
the  dignity  of  la- 
bor. The  Greeks 
and  the  Romans 
had  despised  the 
artisan,  as  we 
"All 
by 

hired  laborers," 
wrote  Cicero,  "are 
dishonorable  and 
base."  Christian- 
ity, on  the  other 
hand,  exalted  the 
workman.  "To  labor  is  to  pray,"  taught  the  Church. 
Since  they  were  favored  by  the  Church  and  given 
markets  for  their  wares  by  the  merchants,  craftsmen  of 


have  seen, 
gains     made 


Metropolitan  Museum 

A  GORGEOUS  CLERICAL  ROBE 


ARTS  AND  TOWN  LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES        155 

all   kinds   flourished.     As   time   passed,    they    became 
very  numerous.     This  is  shown  by  the  names  of  people 
-  Smiths,  Fullers,  Weavers,  Dyers,  Carpenters,  Tay- 
lors, and  Potters. 

As  soon  as  there  were  several  artisans  in  a  medieval 
town,  they  organized  as  the  merchants  did.  Their 
society  was  known  as  a  craft  gild.  Each  trade  had 
its  gild,  which  fixed  the  wages  of  workmen  and  made 
sure  that  good  materials  were  used  in  all  articles.  In 
addition  to  this  the  gild  took  care  of  sick  and  disabled 
gildsmen  and  their  families. 

The  Rise  of  Democracy  in  Towns.  In  the  beginning, 
the  town  was  often  nothing  more  than  an  overgrown 
country  village  which  belonged  to  the  lord  or  the  king. 
Its  residents  were  serfs  bound  to  render  services,  to 
their  overlord  just  like  the  peasants.  Its  position  on 
a  sea,  a  river,  or  highway  crossing,  however,  favored 
the  rise  of  trade  and  industry.  In  the  course  of.time, 
the  townsmen  came  to  demand  certain  rights  of  their 
own.  These  were  the  easier  to  win  as  the  rich  men  of 
the  town  had  money  to  give  in  exchange  for  the  favors 
they  asked. 

When  the  townsmen  got  their  rights  they  had  them 
set  forth  in  a  charter.  The  word  "charter"  itself  comes 
from  the  Latin  word  charta,  meaning  a  sheet  of  paper. 
The  charter  of  a  town  was  a  document  recording  the 
rights  granted  to  the  inhabitants  by  the  overlord.  As 
a  rule,  the  townsmen  had  to  pay  for  the  privileges 
granted  to  them. 


156        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

These  charters  varied  from  place  to  place.  In 
general,  they  included  the  right  of  the  townsmen 
(i)  to  elect  a  mayor  and  aldermen;  (2)  to  hold  courts 
for  the  trial  of  offenders  against  the  law;  (3)  to  hold 
town  meetings  ;  (4)  to  collect  their  own  taxes  ;  and 
(5)  to  be  free  from  the  interference  of  the  lord's  steward 
and  bailiff.  Here  was  the  germ  of  self-government  and 
democracy.  Some  of  the  men,  at  least,  could  vote  and 
have  a  voice  in  making  laws  and  laying  taxes.  Thus 
some  of  our  modern  notions  of  democracy  already 
existed  in  the  middle  ages. 

Strange  to  say,  the  kings  actually  favored  the  rise 
of  self-governing  towns.  They  were  glad  to  have 
help  against  powerful  nobles.  So  they  were  ready  to 
grant  charters  to  townsmen  and  enlist  them  on  the 
roya"!  side  in  any  dispute  with  the  feudal  lords. 

Progress  in  the  Towns.  The  towns  were  the  centers 
of  new  ideas  and  new  enterprises,  as  well  as  the  homes 
of  budding  democracies.  The  country,  on  the  other 
hand,  did  not  change  much  from  century  to  century. 
Work  went  on  there  in  the  same  way  and  with  the  same 
tools.  Peasants  did  not  travel  or  read.  If  one  of 
them  wanted  to  do  something  other  than  farm  work,  it 
was  to  the  town  that  he  went.  The  peasant's  lord 
also  clung  fast  to  old-fashioned  ways.  He  looked 
after  his  estate  and  waged  wars  as  his  father  had  done 
before  him.  He  sometimes  bought  rugs  or  pictures, 
but  he  seldom  changed  his  ideas  or  his  habits. 

The  merchant  of  the  towns  was  the  "  progressive  '' 


ARTS    AND   TOWN    LIFE    IN   THE    MIDDLE    AGES  157 


158  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

element  in  every  country.  He  had  to  read  and  under- 
stand arithmetic  in  order  to  do  business.  He  traveled 
and  saw  strange  parts  of  the  world.  He  was  interested 
in  new  goods,  new  inventions,  and  new  markets.  He 
was  always  eager  to  find  other  ways  of  making  money. 
The  nobleman  wanted  to  fight  the  Turks  because  they 
were  not  Christians.  The  merchant  was  ready  to  do 
business  with  Turks,  Arabs,  Hindus,  or  Chinese --if 
it  was  profitable. 

Life  in  the  city  was  more  exciting  than  life  in  the 
country  villages.  To  the  city  came  merchants  and 
travelers  from  distant  lands,  bringing  stories  of  strange 
peoples  along  with  their  goods  to  sell.  In  the  streets 
and  market  places  of  the  towns,  the  people  heard  of 
new  kinds  of  articles  and  new  industries.  So  the  no- 
tions of  change,  of  invention,  and  of  adventure  stirred 
the  minds  of  the  townsmen.  Slowly  the  world  was 
getting  ready  for  the  modern  age  of  discovery  and 
business  enterprise. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

I.  I.  Compare  the  Gothic  and  Byzantine  cathedrals  pictured 
on  p.  138  and  p.  140.  Note  the  differences  in  the  construction 
of  the  roof,  the  walls,  the  windows.  Point  out  the  buttresses  on 
the  Gothic  structure.  Which  is  to  your  mind  the  more  fitting 
for  a  cathedral :  a  spire  or  a  dome  ?  Also  study  the  church 
buildings  that  you  are  familiar  with  and  see  how  many  evidences 
of  Romanesque  architecture  you  can  find  (p.  139).  2.  Compare 
the  picture  of  the  castle  on  p.  124  with  that  of  the  Gothic  cathe- 
dral. What  are  the  important  differences  ?  3.  Dante's  Divine 


ARTS  AND  TOWN  LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES      159 

Comedy  was  one  of  the  first  great  books  written  in  a  modern 
language  ;  how  long  after  the  fall  of  Rome  did  Dante  live  ?  What 
language  had  been  used  by  writers  during  all  those  years  ? 
4.  What  is  meant  by  a  "chronicle"  ?  By  a  "ballad"  ?  5.  Why 
did  Marsiglio's  theories  of  government  "startle  the  educated 
classes"  of  his  time  ?  How  do  they  compare  with  the  views  of 
government  that  are  generally  held  to-day  ?  6.  The  first  five 
hundred  years  of  the  middle  ages  are  sometimes  known  as  the 
"Dark  Ages";  from  a  study  of  the  text  under  the  heading, 
"Schools  and  Universities,"  what  reasons  can  you  give  for  the  use 
of  the  term  "Dark  Ages"  ?  What  kind  of  "darkness"  is  referred 
to  ?  7.  Aside  from  the  Bible,  the  principal  writings  studied  in 
the  schools  of  the  middle  ages  were  those  of  Aristotle,  and  his 
influence  on  the  thinking  of  educated  people  was  practically  su- 
preme up  to  the  time  of  the  Revival  of  Learning,  about  140x3. 
How  long  before  this  time  had  Aristotle  lived  ?  8.  How  did  the 
colleges  and  universities  of  the  later  middle  ages  differ  from  the 
colleges  and  universities  of  to-day  ?  9.  What  is  meant  by  the 
Revival  of  Learning  ?  10.  Why  is  the  date  1453  considered 
an  important  "key  date"  in  history?  u.  The  invention  of 
printing  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  important  events  in 
human  history ;  give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  that  will  ex- 
plain its  importance.  Some  one  has  compared  the  invention  of 
writing  to  opening  a  door  just  a  little  so  that  "a  mere  line  of 
light"  comes  "through  the  chink  into  a  darkened  room."  "At 
last  came  a  time  .  .  .  when  the  door,  at  the  push  of  the  printer, 
began  to  open  more  widely.  Knowledge  flared  up,  and  as  it 
flared  it  ceased  to  be  the  privilege  of  a  favored  minority."  Ex- 
plain what  this  means. 

II.  I.  Why  were  most  of  the  cities  of  medieval  Europe  sur- 
rounded by  walls  ?  What  effect  would  this  have  upon  the  growth 
of  the  cities  ?  Upon  the  way  in  which  the  people  would  have  to 
live  ?  Upon  the  health  of  the  people  ?  2.  What  was  meant 
in  the  middle  ages  by  a  "free  city"?  3.  Printing,  as  we  have 


160        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

seen,  did  something  to  break  down  the  power  of  the  clergy;  in 
what  way  did  the  development  of  trade  and  the  rise  of  commercial 
cities  help  to  break  down  the  power  of  the  feudal  lords  ? 
4.  What  is  meant  by  a  "gild"  ?  What  associations  or  organiza- 
tions to-day  have  purposes  similar  to  those  of  the  "merchant 
gilds"  of  the  middle  ages?  5.  What  is  the  difference  between 
a  "merchant"  and  an  "artisan"  ?  Between  an  "artisan"  and  an 
"artist"  ?  Name  some  of  the  important  artisan  trades  of  to-day. 
Why  did  the  artisan  trades  develop  more  during  the  middle  ages 
than  in  ancient  times  ?  What  organizations  of  to-day  correspond 
to  the  "craft  gilds"?  6.  What  is  meant  by  a  "charter"? 
American  cities  are  usually  governed  under  charters ;  find  out 
by  what  authorities  these  charters  are  granted.  How  does  this 
differ  from  the  way  in  which  medieval  charters  were  granted  ? 
7.  What  is  meant  by  the  statement  that  the  government  of  the 
medieval  cities  was  "the  germ  of  self-government  and  democ- 
racy"? 8.  How  did  life  in  the  country  villages  in  the  middle 
ages  differ  from  life  in  the  large  towns  and  cities?  What  are 
some  of  the  important  differences  to-day  in  our  country  between 
country  life  and  city  life  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

CHURCH,  A.  J.  —  The  Crusaders ;  Macmillan. 
O'NEILL—  The  Story  of  the  World,  xxv. 
TAPPAN  —  Heroes  of  the  Middle  Ages,  xxiii-xxvi. 

When  Knights  Were  Bold,  x-xv. 
VAN  LOON  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  xxxviii-xli. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE   RISE  OF  NATIONS 

The  King's  Part  in  History.  In  the  middle  ages 
-with  the  warlike  lords  and  princes,  the  powerful 
Church,  and  the  rival  towns  —  there  was  growing  up  a 
new  force  :  the  strength  of  kings.  It  was  the  king 
who  finally  put  a  stop  to  much  of  the  local  fighting 
that  broke  out  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  It 
was  the  king  who  brought  peace  again  to  large  sections 
of  Europe  and  bridged  the  gap  between  the  empire 
of  Rome  and  the  modern  world. 

In  the  beginning  of  his  career,  the  king  was  merely 
a  powerful  chieftain.  Perhaps  he  was  the  head  of  a 
conquering  tribe  or  a  baron  more  skilled  in  fighting 
than  any  of  his  fellow  barons.  At  all  events,  his  power 
was  at  first  in  his  sword  ;  later,  after  the  invention  of 
gunpowder  in  the  fourteenth  century,  in  his  guns  and 
cannon.  He  added  to  his  territories  as  he  conquered 
one  feudal  prince  after  another  and  broke  down  the 
walls  of  their  castles  with  cannon  balls. 

When  a  king  had  conquered  a  large  area,  he  did  a 
number  of  things  that  counted  for  progress.  He 
kept  peace  among  his  subjects,  which  favored  both 
agriculture  and  trade.  He  coined  money  and  made  it 

161 


1 62  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

circulate  within  his  realm,  thus  aiding  the  merchants. 
In  this  way,  he  made  it  possible  for  them  to  trade 
all  over  his  kingdom.  He  chartered  towns.  As  we 
have  seen,  this  favored  the  growth  of  city  democracies. 
He  battered  down  the  castle  walls  of  robber  barons 
perched  upon  the  crags.  He  thus  made  the  highways 
open  and  safe  for  travelers  and  traders.  He  amassed 
a  large  treasury  and  so  had  the  money  to  fit  out 
ships  for  exploration.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
all  the  early  explorers  who  unveiled  the  New  World 
had  the  aid  of  kings. 

The  king  set  up  a  school  at  his  court  and  encouraged 
scholars  to  write  books  and  collect  maps  and  records. 
He  built  highways  that  were  useful  for  commerce  as 
well  as  for  his  armies.  He  aided  Christian  missionaries, 
thereby  helping  in  the  spread  of  Christianity.  As 
we  shall  see,  more  than  one  king  quarreled  with  the 
pope  at  Rome,  and  so  took  the  lead  in  bringing  about 
the  Protestant  Reformation.  One  need  not  be  blind 
to  the  cruelties  of  kings  in  order  to  see  what  a  large 
part  they  played  in  making  the  modern  world. 

It  was  around  the  kings  that  the  nations  of  western 
Europe  grew  into  strength  and  unity.  First  there 
was  the  unity  brought  about  by  the  sword.  Then  came 
unity  in  language,  literature,  education,  law,  the 
administration  of  justice,  the  monetary  system,  com- 
merce, and  the  strong  central  government.  The 
medieval  dream  of  one  European  empire  disappeared 
before  national  patriotism.  Even  the  idea  of  one 


THE   RISE  OF   NATIONS  163 

church  was  later  cast  aside,  as  some  nations  definitely 
rejected  the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  All  this  made 
for  more  variety  and  many  separate  countries.  At 
the  same  time,  it  led  to  terrible  wars  among  nations, 
such  as  the  Hundred  Years'  War  between  England 
and  France  ending  in  1453,  and  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  —  a  general  European  conflict  that  closed  in  1648. 

THE  RISE  AND  GROWTH  OF  FRANCE 

The  Prankish  Kingdom.  France  was  the  first  of 
the  nations  to  appear.  It  derived  its  name  from  a  band 
of  Frankish  warriors  who  broke  through  the  northern 
border  of  the  Roman  province  of  Gaul  about  the  middle 
of  the  third  century.  Long  afterward  there  arose 
among  them  a  leader  called  Clovis,  who  began,  in 
486,  the  conquest  of  Gaul.  At  his  death  some  twenty- 
five  years  later,  the  work  had  been  finished ;  nearly  all 
the  territory  now  embraced  in  modern  France  had  been 
subdued  and  united  under  his  sword.  In  the  mean- 
time he  had  been  converted  to  Christianity  (see  above, 
p.  126),  so  that  France  was  among  the  first  Christian 
kingdoms  of  the  world.  For  nearly  two  hundred  years 
the  descendants  of  Clovis  reigned  in  France.  Then  the 
family  grew  weak  and  indolent  and  was  thrust  aside 
by  one  more  powerful. 

The  Carolingians.  The  new  family,  known  as  Caro- 
lingians,  had  been  growing  in  wealth  and  power  for 
a  long  time ;  it  counted  among  its  members  warriors 
of  skill  and  bravery.  Each  of  the  new  line  of  kings 


164 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


was  approved  by  the  pope  and  thus  had  religious  sanc- 
tion for  his  authority.  Those  who  had  once  reigned 
by  virtue  of  the  sword  now  ruled  "  by  the  grace  of 
God." 

The  most  famous  of  the  line  was  Charlemagne,  or 
Charles  the  Great,  who  reigned  from  768  to  814.     He 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 

extended  his  realm  to  include  large  portions  of  Germany 
and  Italy  as  well  as  France.  He  was  a  fierce  warrior 
when  fighting  his  neighbors  ;  at  the  same  time  he  was 
a  friend  to  peace  within  his  own  dominions.  He 
founded  schools,  aided  in  the  conversion  of  the  heathen 
to  the  east  of  his  realm,  built  magnificent  palaces, 


THE  RISE  OF  NATIONS 


165 


1 66  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

and  took  pride  in  erecting  beautiful  churches.  He 
was  so  deeply  interested  in  learning  that  he  tried  to 
teach  himself  how  to  write  after  he  became  a  man  ; 
he  kept  tablets  under  his  pillow  so  that  he  could  practice 
whenever  he  had  a  little  time  to  spare.  Unhappily 
he  began  too  late  in  life  and  could  not  master  the  art. 
The  monks  at  his  court,  however,  who  could  write,  have 
left  exciting  stones  of  his  valor  and  his  deeds. 

The  Holy  Roman  Empire.  In  the  year  800  a  wonder- 
ful thing  happened  in  the  life  of  Charlemagne.  He 
was  then  on  a  visit  to  Rome,  and  on  Christmas  Day 
attended  services  at  the  great  church  of  St.  Peter's. 
While  Charlemagne  was  kneeling  before  the  altar,  the 
pope,  Leo  III,  placed  a  crown  upon  his  head  and  hailed 
him  as  "  Emperor  of  the  Romans."  By  this  act  the 
king  of  the  Franks  was  declared  to  be  the  successor 
of  the  great  Roman  emperors.  In  the  streets  of  the 
Eternal  City,  where  once  the  masses  had  cheered  the 
victorious  Caesar,  the  populace  now  did  homage  to  a 
new  master,  who  bore  the  grand  old  title  of  "  Augustus." 

In  this  way  there  was  established  what  was  known  as 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  which  was  to  last  until  1806. 
It  had  a  stormy  life.  Since  it  was  the  pope  who  first 
placed  the  crown  on  Charlemagne's  head,  later  popes 
claimed  the  right  to  decide  who  should  wear  it.  Charle- 
magne's empire  broke  up  a  few  years  after  his  death, 
but  the  struggle  among  princes  to  secure  the  imperial 
crown  went  on  for  nearly  a  thousand  years.  There 
were  also  endless  disputes  between  popes  and  emperors 


THE  RISE  OF  NATIONS 


167 


over  the  question  as  to  whether  the  religious  or  the 
imperial  power  was  supreme. 

France  under  the  Capetians.  Charles  the  Great's 
family  could  not  keep  order  in  France,  so  that  task 
passed  to  other  hands.  This  time  it  was  undertaken 
by  Hugh  Capet,  a  masterful  baron  who,  from  his  seat 


FRANCE  IN  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY 

at  Paris,  began  to  conquer  dukes  and  counts  all  about 
him.  Under  the  Capetian  family  France  was  again 
united.  Branches  of  the  family  ruled  in  France,  except 
for  a  short  time,  until  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  French  barons  strove  with  might  and  main  to 
keep    their   independence ;     but   year   by   year,    with 


1 68 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


THE   RISE  OF   NATIONS  169 

occasional  setbacks,  the  power  of  the  king  increased. 
At  length  Louis  XIV  (1643-1715)  could  boast  that  he 
alone  possessed  all  powers  of  government.  Sons  of 
barons  who  had  once  threatened  kings  with  the  sword 
were  now  glad  to  hold  a  napkin  for  a  king  as  he  sat  at 
dinner.  From  time  to  time  the  French  kings  called 
parliaments  composed  of  the  clergy,  the  nobility,  and 
the  commoners.  In  1614  even  that  restraint  on  the 
king  was  set  aside.  The  king  was  absolute  master, 
but  the  union  of  France  was  secured. 

THE  RISE  OF  SPAIN 

Goths  and  Arabs  in  Spain.  Even  its  fortunate 
position  below  the  Pyrenees  Mountains  did  not  save 
the  Spanish  peninsula  from  the  ravages  of  the  barba- 
rian invasions.  In  418  a  German  tribe  of  West  Goths 
burst  into  Spain  and  established  a  kingdom  there. 
For  nearly  three  hundred  years,  the  West  Goths 
held  their  own  against  all  enemies.  Then  in  711 
they  were  utterly  defeated  by  a  great  army  of  Arabs, 
or  Moors,  from  Africa.  The  Moors  were  the  followers 
of  a  zealous  religious  leader,  Mohammed  (died  632  A. D.). 
They  were  bent  on  conquering  all  Christendom. 

For  seven  hundred  years  the  Moors  maintained 
themselves  in  Spain.  They  built  beautiful  palaces  and 
mosques,  many  of  which  still  lend  a  peculiar  charm  to 
Spanish  architecture.  They  brought  with  them  the 
learning  of  the  East.  Above  all  they  prized  the  study 
of  natural  science. 


170 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


The  Formation  of  Modern  Spain.  The  presence 
of  the  Mohammedans  in  Spain  was  a  source  of  distress 
to  the  kings  of  France.  Charlemagne  set  about  the 
task  of  winning  the  country  back  to  Christianity. 
By  heroic  efforts  he  was  able  to  wrest  a  part  of  the 

land  from  the 
Moors  and  gain  a 
foothold  beyond 
the  Pyrenees. 

Thereafter  a 
few  Christian 
princes  in  Spain, 
who  survived  the 
Moorish  conquest, 
were  able  to  throw 
off  Moorish  rule. 
So  independent 
kingdoms  a  p- 
peared  here  and 
there  in  the  north. 
Among  these  early 
kingdoms  were 
Castile,  Leon, 
Aragon,  and  Na- 
varre. 

Finally  these 
Christian  realms  were  united  under  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon  and  Isabella  of  Castile,  who  were  married 
in  1469.  By  this  time  all  of  Spain  had  been  re- 


(g)  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

COURT  OF  THE  LIONS,  ALHAMBRA  (SPAIN) 


THE   RISE  OF   NATIONS  171 

covered  from  the  Moors,  except  the  kingdom  of 
Granada  in  the  far  south.  In  1492,  the  year  that 
Columbus  sailed  on  his  fateful  voyage,  the  Moors  were 
driven  from  their  last  foothold  in  Spain.  All  Spain 
came  under  the  rule  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  To  the 
west,  however,  the  little  kingdom  of  Portugal  was  able  to 
keep  its  independence  for  a  long  time.  Spain,  united 
and  peaceful  at  home,  soon  launched  upon  a  new  career. 
It  led  in  exploring  and  conquering  the  New  World. 

THE  MAKING  OF  THE  ENGLISH  NATION 

The  Coming  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  When  the  bar- 
barians were  at  the  gates  of  Rome  in  410,  messengers 
were  sent  post  haste  to  recall  the  Roman  army  from  the 
distant  province  of  Britain.  That  far  country,  which 
Caesar  had  visited  and  his  successors  had  conquered, 
was  now  to  fall  a  victim  to  other  foes. 

The  newcomers  were  Jutes,  Angles,  and  Saxons  — 
Germanic  warriors,  who  came  from  their  homes  in 
and  near  what  is  now  the  Danish  peninsula.  "  Foes 
they  are,  fierce  beyond  other  foes,  and  cunning  as  they 
are  fierce,"  wrote  a  Roman  poet ;  "  the  sea  is  their 
school,  war  and  storm  their  friend  ;  they  are  sea  wolves 
that  live  on  the  pillage  of  the  world."  Angles  and 
Saxons  were,  in  449  A.D.,  invited  by  the  Britons  to 
aid  them  against  the  still  more  savage  Picts  and  Scots 
that  came  down  from  the  north. 

Before  many  years  had  passed,  the  English,  as  we 
may  now  call  the  various  tribesmen,  turned  against 


172  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

their  allies.  They  began  the  conquest  of  Britain  for 
themselves.  For  a  century  or  more  the  terrible  contest 
went  on.  Wealthy  Romans  fled  with  their  gold  and 
silver  or  buried  the  treasure  in  the  earth.  One  after 
another,  the  old  Roman  towns  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  invaders.  Christian  churches  were  not  spared 
the  torch.  Even  the  priests  were  slain  at  the  altars. 
By  the  year  557,  all  southern  and  eastern  Britain 
was  subdued  by  the  English,  who  had  come  in  many 
bands  under  as  many  different  war  lords. 

Early  English  Unity.  Yet  the  island  was  not  to  find 
peace.  The  conquerors  turned  against  one  another. 
For  two  and  a  half  centuries  English  chieftains  waged 
a  deadly  contest  among  themselves  for  supremacy. 
At  length,  in  828,  one  of  them,  Egbert  of  Wessex, 
brought  all  the  English  under  his  banner.  In  the 
meantime,  Christian  missionaries  had  been  active  and 
had  converted  the  English  to  their  faith.  Churches 
and  monasteries  had  risen  all  over  the  land,  and 
monks  were  busy  with  their  quills  writing  down  laws 
and  chronicles. 

Alfred  the  Great  and  the  Danish  Conquest.  Unity 
had  hardly  been  won  before  a  fresh  danger  appeared. 
Bands  of  fierce  warriors  from  Scandinavia,  the  Danes, 
swept  down  upon  the  English  coasts  in  frightful  array, 
burning  and  plundering.  In  a  bitter  struggle  with 
them,  Alfred,  a  grandson  of  King  Egbert,  was  to  win 
the  love  of  his  people  and  the  title  of  "  the  Great." 
Coming  to  the  throne  in  871,  he  found  his  whole  realm 


THE    RISE    OF    NATIONS 


173 


in  peril.  By  the  most  heroic  efforts  he  saved  a  large 
part  of  it  from  the  conquerors  ;  but  all  the  northeastern 
part  of  England  was  wrested  from  him. 

In  the  realm  that  remained  Alfred  ruled  with  wisdom 
and  justice.  He 
won  for  himself  a 
place  in  history  as 
one  of  the  noblest 
English  sover- 
eigns. He  was  a 
brave  warrior  and 
knew  how  to  lead 
an  army  in  self-de- 
fense. He  was  a 
wise  lawgiver.  He 
compiled  the  laws 
of  England,  tak- 
ing, as  he  said, 
"  those  which 
seemed  rightest  to 
me."  He  was 
deeply  interested 
in  education.  He 
had  a  school  at  his 
court,  and  wished  that  every  freeborn  boy  should 
"  abide  at  his  book  until  he  can  well  understand  Eng- 
lish writing."  Alfred  was  also  a  generous  friend  of  the 
Church. 

He  loved  the  English  tongue  and  himself  translated 


EGBERT'S  KINGDOM 


174  °UR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

into  it  many  works  written  in  the  Latin  language. 
Not  content  with  making  mere  translations,  Alfred 
added  many  passages  of  his  own.  He  wrote  down 
his  ideas  of  wise  and  just  government  and  made  clear 
his  hatred  for  the  cruelty  and  tyranny  of  Roman 
emperors.  Day  and  night,  one  of  his  friends  said, 
Alfred  labored  to  correct  injustice  done  to  his  subjects, 
"  for  in  that  whole  kingdom  the  poor  had  no  helpers, 
or  few,  save  the  king  himself."  At  his  death,  in  901, 
Alfred  had  made  the  beginnings  of  English  literature 
and  had  set  an  example  of  a  king  who  wished  to  be 
"  a  father  to  his  people." 

The  Norman  Conquest  of  England.  About  a  hun- 
dred years  after  Alfred's  death,  all  England  was 
conquered  by  Danish  warriors.  One  of  their  leaders, 
however,  King  Canute,  tried  to  rule  as  well  as 
Alfred  had  done.  After  he  had  made  certain  of  his 
grip  upon  England,  he  paid  a  visit  to  Rome.  There 
he  vowed,  he  says,  "  to  rule  justly  and  piously  my 
realm  and  subjects."  After  his  death,  wars  filled  the 
land  again  ;  and,  in  1066,  another  invader  appeared 
in  the  Channel. 

This  new  soldier  of  fortune  was  William,  the  Duke  of 
Normandy,  from  northern  France.  He  was  the  de- 
scendant of  a  piratic  Norse  chieftain  who  had  raided 
the  coasts  of  France  and  then  settled  down  there  as  a 
vassal  of  the  French  king.  William  himself  was  a  born 
fighter  of  great  strength  and  dreadful  cruelty.  "  So  stark 
and  fierce  was  he,"  wrote  a  chronicler  of  his  time,  "  that 


THE   RISE  OF   NATIONS 


175 


none  dared  to  resist  his  will."     None  was  strong  enough 
to  bend  his  bow  or  wield  his  heavy  battle-ax. 

As  he  looked  about  for  more  land  and  booty,  William 
had  fixed  upon  England.  At  the  battle  of  Hastings, 
in  1066,  he  de- 
feated and  killed 
the  English  king, 
Harold,  and  seized 
his  realm.  After  a 
little  while  he  ex- 
tended his  stern 
rule  to  the  borders 
of  Wales  and  Scot- 
land. He  divided 
the  land  among  his 
warriors,  who  be- 
came the  landlords 
of  England.  But  he 
was  careful  to  keep 
all  the  nobles  well  in 
hand,  so  that  none 
could  set  himself 
up  as  king  or  defy 

,  .  ENGLAND  UNDER  WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR 

the  royal  power. 

Under  the  Norman  kings,  England  became  a  united 
and  powerful  country.  The  king  kept  order  in  the 
land ;  peasants  and  merchants  could  live  and  work  in 
peace.  An  old  monkish  chronicler,  writing  of  the  deeds 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  said  :  "  Among  the  good 


176 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


things,  is  not  to  be  forgotten  the  good  peace  that  he 
made  in  his  land ;  so  that  a  man  who  had  any  trust 
in  himself  might  go  over  his  realm  with  his  bosom  full 
of  gold,  unharmed.  No  man  durst  slay  another,  no 

matter  how  great 
might  be  the 
wrong  done  to 
him.  .  .  .  The 
king  was  very 
harsh  and  took 
from  his  subjects 
many  a  mark  of 
gold  and  many  a 
hundred  pound  of 
silver,  all  the  which 
he  took,  by  right 
and  unright." 
Though  the  king 
was  harsh,  the  land 
had  peace.  From 
the  Norman  con- 
quest to  the  pres- 
ent day,  England 
has  remained 
united.  There  were  a  few  civil  wars,  but  the  land  was 
not  continually  torn  and  ravaged  by  warring  feudal 
princes.  This  good  fortune  was  due  in  the  beginning 
to  the  strong  kings  who  kept  the  feudal  lords  from 
fighting  one  another. 


From  an  old  print 

KING  JOHN  SIGNING  MAGNA  CARTA 


THE    RISE    OF    NATIONS  177 

King  John  and  Magna  Carta.  Though  the  Norman 
kings  and  their  successors  were  powerful  in  England, 
they  were  not  allowed  to  rule  just  as  they  pleased. 
When  King  John  undertook  to  tax,  punish,  imprison, 
and  in  other  ways  oppress  his  people,  the  barons  and 
the  high  authorities  in  the  Church  united  against  him. 
They  met  at  Runnymede  in  June,  1215,  and  forced 
the  king  to  promise  to  abide  by  certain  rules. 

These  rules  were  written  down  in  a  Great  Charter 
(Magna  Carta)  which  is  prized  by  the  English-speaking 
people  to-day  along  with  such  documents  as  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence.  By  the  charter,  certain  dues 
which  the  feudal  lords  had  to  pay  the  king  were  fixed 
at  definite  sums.  The  rights  of  the  clergy,  including 
their  property,  were  protected.  The  citizens  of  all 
cities  were  to  enjoy  their  ancient  customs  and  priv- 
ileges undisturbed.  No  freeman  was  to  be  tried  and 
imprisoned  by  the  king  in  an  arbitrary  manner.  Justice 
was  not  to  be  sold  or  delayed  by  the  king's  officers. 
Only  those  who  knew  the  law  of  England  and  meant 
to  observe  it  were  to  be  appointed  royal  sheriffs  and 
judges.  Certain  taxes -- though  by  no  means  all 
taxes  --  were  to  be  levied  only  with  the  consent  of  the 
landlords  who  had  to  pay  them. 

In  time  a  wonderful  fiction  grew  up  about  the  Great 
Charter.  It  was  believed  that  Magna  Carta  guaranteed 
trial  by  jury  to  all  persons  arrested  for  crimes.  It 
was  also  believed  that,  according  to  the  Charter,  no 
taxes  could  be  laid  without  the  consent  of  the  people. 


1 78  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

In  after  years,  when  any  one  did  not  like  the  king's 
deeds,  he  said  that  such  ways  were  forbidden  by  the 
Great  Charter.  The  fact  is  that  the  people  often  thus 
read  into  the  Latin  words  of  the  Charter  a  meaning 
that  was  not  really  there.  It  cannot  be  said  with  truth 
that  the  mass  of  the  English  people,  who  were  serfs, 
were  meant  to  derive  any  special  benefit  from  it. 
Still,  the  Great  Charter  is  a  justly  famous  landmark 
in  English  history.  It  did  declare  that  the  king  could 
not  do  as  he  pleased  in  all  matters.  It  also  declared 
that  in  some  cases  he  could  not  act  without  the  consent 
of  at  least  a  few  Englishmen. 

The  Rise  of  the  English  Parliament.  The  son  and 
the  grandson  of  King  John  adopted  a  custom  that  also 
had  a  strong  influence  on  all  the  later  history  of  England 
and  America.  Since  they  were  in  dire  straits  for 
money,  they  called  on  certain  of  their  subjects  to  help 
them  get  it.  They  asked  the  bishops,  archbishops, 
and  all  the  barons  of  high  rank  to  meet  them  in  person. 
They  also  invited  each  town  and  county  to  send  repre- 
sentatives to  the  meeting.  These  representatives  were 
chosen  by  the  well-to-do  men  of  the  towns  and  the  land- 
lords of  the  counties  who  had  money  to  give  the  king. 

In  time,  such  meetings  between  the  king  and  certain 
of  his  subjects  became  a  regular  custom.  So  arose 
the  English  form  of  government.  The  lords  and  the 
higher  clergy  sat  together  during  these  sessions  and 
were  known  as  the  House  of  Lords.  The  representa- 
tives of  the  towns  and  counties  sat  together  and  were 


THE    RISE    OF    NATIONS  179 

known  as  the  House  of  Commons.  The  two  houses 
together  were  called  Parliament.  The  term  itself  comes 
from  a  French  word  meaning  "  to  speak."  Parliament 
spoke  to  the  king  about  taxes  and  such  matters. 

In  the  beginning,  the  chief  business  of  Parliament 
was  to  settle  upon  taxes  for  the  king's  treasury.  It  was 
not  long,  however,  before  Parliament  in  return  for  the 
taxes  that  were  paid  began  to  petition  the  king  for 
changes  in  the  laws  that  had  been  made  by  him.  If 
the  king  approved  a  petition,  it  was  accepted  as  a  law  of 
the  land.  Thus  Parliament  began  to  make  laws  itself. 

Gradually  the  rule  was  fixed  that,  save  on  rare  occa- 
sions, the  king  was  to  make  no  law  and  lay  no  tax 
without  the  consent  of  Parliament.  After  a  while 
Parliament  ceased  even  to  petition  the  king  for  new 
laws.  It  drew  up  its  own  law  in  the  form  of  a  bill. 
If  the  king  approved  the  bill,  it  became  a  law.  If 
the  king  said,  in  Latin,  Veto,  "  I  forbid,"  then  it  did 
not  become  a  law.  Although  the  king  kept  this  right 
of  veto  for  many  centuries,  still  he  generally  consulted 
Parliament,  which  represented  the  taxpayers,  when  he 
wanted  new  laws.  Such  was  the  origin  of  representa- 
tive government.  Though  other  countries,  as  well  as 
England,  had  this  plan  of  government  in  the  middle 
ages,  it  was  brought  to  American  soil  directly  from  Eng- 
land by  the  first  colonists  (First  Book,  p.  55).  It  is 
our  plan  of  government  to-day. 

The  Growth  of  the  National  English  Literature. 
The  uniting  of  English  territory  meant  the  uniting  of 


l8o        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

English  minds --the  forming  of  a  national  mind,  so 
to  speak.  This  was,  like  everything  else,  a  slow  pro- 
cess. The  efforts  of  Alfred  the  Great  to  create  a 
national  English  literature  had  been  almost  forgotten 
in  the  turmoil  that  followed  his  death. 

The  Norman  conqueror,  William,  brought  with  him 
an  army  of  priests  to  whom  English  was  a  foreign 
tongue.  He  himself  and  his  barons  spoke  the  French 
of  Normandy ;  so  that  language  was  the  language  of 
the  royal  castle  and  the  law  courts.  Judges  rendered 
their  decisions  in  French.  Children  had  to  learn  it 
in  the  schools.  For  royal  decrees  and  legal  documents, 
like  Magna  Carta,  Latin  was  generally  used.  Even 
the  accounts  of  merchants  and  stewards  on  the  great 
estates  were  usually  kept  in  Latin.  When  William 
compiled  a  record  of  the  lands  and  property  of  Eng- 
land for  taxation,  known  as  the  Domesday  Book, 
everything  was  put  down  in  Latin.  Only  for  a  few 
chronicles  and  stray  writings  was  the  English  tongue 
used. 

Nevertheless  the  conquerors  could  not  force  their 
language  on  the  masses.  In  field  and  workshop,  Eng- 
lish was  in  daily  use.  Even  the  descendants  of  Nor- 
man barons  had  to  learn  English  in  order  to  deal 
with  their  subjects.  By  1362,  the  use  of  French  had 
become  uncommon.  In  that  year  the  order  went 
forth  that  English  should  be  used  in  the  courts  of 
law.  In  a  few  more  years,  it  took  the  place  of  French 
in  the  schools  and  the  acts  of  Parliament  were  written 


THE    RISE    OF    NATIONS  181 

in  it.  At  length,  sermons  were  preached  in  English. 
All  that  was  then  needed  to  make  the  humble  language 
of  the  people  a  national  language  was  its  use  in  great 
poems  and  books.  In  time,  these  also  appeared. 

Chaucer  and  the  Canterbury  Tales.  First  among  the 
masters  of  English  literature  was  Geoffrey  Chaucer, 
the  son  of  a  London  wine  merchant,  born  about  1340. 
Unlike  most  learned  men  of  that  time,  he  was  not  a 
priest.  He  was,  for  a  short  period,  a  soldier ;  then 
minister  of  the  king  on  missions  to  various  Italian 
cities  ;  and  finally  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament  and 
a  government  officer. 

His  greatest  work,  Canterbury  Tales,  begun  about 
1384,  is  justly  famous  even  to  this  day.  It  is  a  vivid 
picture  of  English  life  in  that  age.  It  purports  to  be 
a  collection  of  stories  told  by  some  pilgrims  stopping 
at  an  inn  on  their  way  to  the  shrine  of  a  saint  at  Canter- 
bury. For  the  clergy  as  a  class,  a  monk,  a  friar,  a 
poor  parson,  and  a  "  sweet  prioress  "  speak ;  a  lawyer, 
a  doctor,  and  a  clerk  spin  their  yarns  ;  a  good  wife 
from  Bath,  a  merchant,  a  tailor,  a  plowman,  a  weaver, 
a  miller,  and  other  artisans  add  their  tales  to  the 
common  store.  The  language  of  the  poem  is  English. 
Though  many  of  the  words  are  strange  to  us  and  the 
spelling  seems  queer,  we  can  read  it  to-day  with  a 
little  help  from  a  dictionary  of  old  English.  High 
school  students  usually  read  passages  from  it. 

Here  we  have  for  the  first  time  a  great  English  poem 
which  deals  not  with  heroes  or  saints  and  martyrs, 


1 82  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

but  with  the  people  of  everyday  life.  The  scholar 
who  loved  his  Latin  book  could  laugh  over  it,  and  so 
could  the  humblest  person  who  could  read  English. 
In  a  little  more  than  fifty  years  after  Chaucer's  death 
in  1400,  the  printing  press  was  to  spread  copies  of 
his  stories  broadcast  over  his  native  land. 

William  Caxton  and  the  Printing  Press.  It  was  in 
1476  that  the  first  printing  press  was  set  up  in  London. 
It  was  brought  into  England  by  William  Caxton,  who 
had  spent  many  years  as  a  merchant  in  Bruges  and 
had  there  learned  the  art  of  printing.  At  first  Caxton, 
besides  printing  for  his  customers,  translated  many 
books  from  French  and  Latin.  He  brought  them  out 
in  the  English  form,  employing  as  far  as  possible 
"  the  common  terms  that  be  daily  used."  School- 
boys could  then  get,  for  a  few  pence,  copies  of  many  of 
Cicero's  writings  in  English  as  well  as  in  Latin. 

But  Caxton  was  more  than  a  translator.  He  wanted 
to  help  perfect  the  English  language  and  to  give  to 
readers  the  best  writings  in  that  tongue.  In  fact, 
he  printed  all  the  English  poetry  that  was  thought 
worthy  in  his  day.  Naturally,  he  brought  out  a  fine 
edition  of  the  Canterbury  Tales.  "  That  worshipful 
man,  Geoffrey  Chaucer,"  he  said,  "  ought  to  be  eter- 
nally remembered."  In  due  time,  books  in  English 
crowded  aside  those  of  Latin  authors  and  French 
romancers.  An  English  national  literature  was  created. 
This  English  literary  inheritance  has  had  a  powerful 
influence  upon  our  own  country. 


THE    RISE    OF    NATIONS  183 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    What  does  modern  civilization  owe  to  the  kings  of  me- 
dieval   Europe?       2.    On   p.    162    several    bonds    uniting    people 
into  nations  are  named  :    a  common  language,  a  common  litera- 
ture, a  common  system  of  education,  .a  common  system  of  laws, 
a  uniform  monetary  system,  a  common  religion,  a  strong  central 
government,  and  means  of  carrying  on  commerce  among  all  parts 
of  a  country.     Which   of    these    have    been    most  important    in 
making  the  United  States  a  nation?       3.    Some  of  these  things 
tend  to-day  to  unite  the  peoples  of  Europe;    and  yet  Europe  is 
made  up  of  many  nations.     What  would  probably  have  to  take 
place  before  all  of  Europe  could  be  united  in  the  sense  in  which 
our  people  are  united  ? 

II.  i.    Why   is    the   name   of   Clovis    remembered?       2.    How 
long  after  the  fall  of  Rome  did   Charlemagne  die?       3.    What 
is  meant  by  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  ?     In  what  ways  did  it  differ 
from  the  ancient  Roman  empire  ?       4.    In  what  important  ways 
did  the  early  history  of  Spain   differ  from  the  early  history  of 
France?       5.    Find  out  something  about  the  religion  of  Moham- 
med and  his  followers.     How  does  it  differ  from   Christianity  ? 
What  city  in  Europe  now  follows  the  religion  of  Mohammed  ? 

III.  i.    Why    are    the    English    people    sometimes    called    the 
Anglo-Saxons  ?     Find  on   the   map   the   regions  from  which   the 
different    peoples    came    that    successively    conquered    England. 
2.    As  England  was  invaded  from  the  east  and  south,  the  original 
inhabitants  were  pushed  to  the  west  and  north ;   find  on  a  map 
the  regions  in  which  they  might  have  found  refuge  from  the  in- 
vaders.    Perhaps  you  can  think  of  some  reasons  that  will  explain 
why  the  people  of  Wales  and  Ireland  and  of  the  north  of  Scot- 
land are  even  to-day  in  many  ways  different  from  the  people  of 
England.       3.    Why  has  the  year  1066  somewhat  the  same  im- 
portance in  English  history  that  the  year  1776  has  in  American 
history  ?       4.    For  three  centuries   after    1066   the   French   Ian- 


1 84  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

guage  was  the  official  language  of  the  English  government;  how 
would  you  explain  this  ?  5.  What  classes  were  chiefly  bene- 
fited by  the  Magna  Carta  ?  6.  How  did  the  term  "parlia- 
ment" originate?  In  what  ways  did  the  English  Parliament 
in  its  early  days  differ  from  our  Congress  ?  Why  was  develop- 
ment of  the  power  of  Parliament  to  control  taxes  so  important  ? 
7.  What  is  meant  by  "representative  government"?  In  what 
respect  is  it  true  that  the  development  of  representative  govern- 
ment in  England  is  a  part  of  American  history  ?  8.  In  what 
ways  did  Chaucer  and  Caxton  help  to  unify  the  English  peo- 
ple and  thus  to  make  the  English  nation  ? 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

i.  For  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  (p.  166),  see  map  on  p.  277. 
Compare  its  extent  with  the  extent  of  the  ancient  Roman  empire 
(p.  53)  and  with  the  extent  of  modern  France  (map  facing  p.  436). 
2.  What  modern  countries  are  included  in  the  territory  covered 
by  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  (map,  p.  164)  ?  3.  What  terri- 
tory belonged  to  France  in  the  fifteenth  century  that  now  belongs 
to  her  neighbors  ?  Answer  this  question  by  comparing  the  map  on 
p.  167  with  the  map  facing  p.  436.  4.  Explain,  by  reference  to 
the  text,  why  the  map  of  England  on  p.  175  is  simpler  than  that 
on  p.  173.  5.  Make  a  list  of  the  names  of  places  in  this  chapter. 
Try  to  locate  each  name  on  one  of  the  maps  in  this  chapter. 
Which  places  cannot  thus  be  located  ?  Why  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

BEST,  S.  M.  —  Merry  England;  Macmillan. 

DALE,  LUCY  —  Landmarks  of  British  History,  i-viii ;  Longmans. 
MACGREGOR,  MARY —  The  Story  of  France,  i-xiv;  Stokes. 
MARSHALL,  H.  E.  —  A  History   of  France,   i-xxiv ;    Hodder   and 

Stoughton. 
MORRIS,  CHARLES  —  Historical  Tales  —  English;  Lippincott. 


THE    RISE    OF    NATIONS  185 

QUENNELL,  M.  AND  C.  H.  B.  —  A  History  of  Everyday  Things  in 

England,  Parts  I  and  II ;  B.  T.  Batsford,  London. 
TAPPAN,  EVA  M.  — England's  Story,  i-v ;  Houghton  Mifflin. 

Hero  Stories  of  France,  i-xiii ;  Houghton  Mifflin. 

Heroes  of  the  Middle  Ages,  xix-xxii ;  Harrap. 
WARREN  —  Stories  from  English  History,  i-v,  viii-xiv ;  Heath. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  GROWTH  OF  WORLD   COMMERCE  AND 
EXPLORATION 

AFTER  securing  their  unity,  the  new  nations,  Spain, 
France,  and  England,  were  ready  for  the  next  historic 
task  —  the  great  work  of  exploring,  conquering,  and 
settling  a  New  World.  North  and  South  America 
were  soon  to  be  discovered,  in  a  search  for  a  water 
route  to  India  and  China.  In  time  commerce  and 
industry  were  to  overshadow,  in  importance,  agriculture 
—  the  mainstay  of  the  people  in  the  middle  ages. 
Business  men  and  industrial  workers  were  to  rival  in 
numbers  landlords,  clergy,  and  peasants.  Industrial 
and  trading  cities  were  to  spring  up  all  over  western 
Europe. 

In  short,  with  the  unity  of  the  three  nations,  Europe 
was  going  over  into  a  new  epoch  —  out  of  the  middle 
ages  into  modern  times.  The  history  of  Europe  was 
now  to  pass  beyond  Europe  itself  to  the  uttermost 
parts  of  the  earth,  where  new  nations  were  to  be  founded 
and  trade  carried  on.  The  governments  of  Spain, 
France,  and  England,  especially,  were  to  grant  money 
to  explorers,  charter  companies,  and  build  fleets  of 
ships.  They  were  to  engage  in  three  hundred  years 

1 86 


COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION 


187 


of  warfare  for  the  possession  of  trade  and  lands  beyond 
the  seas. 

THE  GROWTH  OF  TRADE  FROM  EARLY  TIMES 


Commerce  in  Ancient  Times. 

ever,  did  not  burst  upon  man- 
kind all  at  once.  It  was  like 
the  flowering  of  a  slowly  grow- 
ing plant.  Commerce  among 
nations  began  in  the  distant 
past.  All  the  great  countries 
of  antiquity  had  their  ships, 
their  warehouses,  and  their 
merchants.  The  people  of 
Egypt,  Babylonia,  Persia, 
Greece,  Rome,  Carthage,  and 
other  ancient  states,  each  in 
turn,  built  up  trade  in  the 
Mediterranean  basin. 

East  and  West,  adven- 
turous merchants  and  sailors 
looked  for  new  markets  and 
new  supplies.  King  Solomon's 
men  brought  gold,  silver,  ivory, 
and  peacocks  all  the  way  from 
India  to  Palestine.  Alexander 
the  Great,  looking  for  more 
worlds  to  conquer,  led  his 
army  to  the  very  borders  of 


This  new  age,  how- 


Metropolttan  Museum 


ANTIQUE  SILK  FROM  THE  FAR 
EAST 


1 88  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

India.  Though  an  early  death  cut  short  his  plans, 
Greek  merchants  opened  up  a  rich  traffic  in  Indian 
goods.  Herodotus,  the  Greek  historian,  said  that 
India  was  the  wealthiest  and  most  populous  country 
on  earth.  Even  more  distant  China  was  known  to 
the  ancients,  by  the  name  of  Seres.  It  was  often 
mentioned  in  the  legends  of  the  Persians.  Among  the 
records  of  China  is  an  account  of  a  Chinese  prince  who, 
in  the  year  985  B.C.,  made  a  journey  into  the  remote 
lands  of  the  West  and  brought  back  with  him  skilled 
workmen  and  many  curiosities. 

The  Romans  made  much  of  their  trade  with  the  Far 
East.  A  Roman  writer  of  the  first  century  after  Christ 
complained  that  Arabia,  India,  and  China  drained 
Rome  of  millions  of  dollars  of  gold  annually  to  pay 
for  silks  and  other  luxuries.  In  the  later  days,  when 
the  Roman  empire  stretched  from  Britain  to  Arabia, 
the  trade  was  immense.  In  the  markets  of  the  city 
of  Rome  could  be  seen  tin,  lead,  and  hides  from  Britain 
and  iron  from  Gaul,  as  well  as  silks,  spices,  and  precious 
stones  from  India  and  the  distant  East.  We  are  told 
that  one  Roman  merchant  carried  on  the  same  voyage 
from  Egypt  to  Rome  a  great  obelisk,  200  sailors,  1200 
passengers,  400,000  Roman  bushels  of  wheat,  and  a 
cargo  of  linen,  glass,  paper,  and  pepper.  In  the  cities 
of  the  Roman  empire,  there  were  to  be  found  huge 
warehouses  of  the  merchants  who  made  princely  for- 
tunes from  trade. 

Commerce   in   the    Middle   Ages.     As    the   Roman 


COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION 


189 


190        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

empire  fell  to  pieces,  its  vast  trade  decayed.  Ware- 
houses closed  their  doors.  The  families  of  rich  mer- 
chants became  poor.  The  silks,  spices,  and  precious 
jewels  of  the  East  were  seen  no  more  in  the  market 
places.  The  huge  and  bare  stone  castles  of  feudal 
lords  took  the  place  of  luxurious  Roman  villas.  Each 
locality  came  to  depend  upon  itself  for  practically  all 
the  necessities  of  life  and  most  of  the  few  luxuries 
that  were  enjoyed.  The  merchants  who  ventured 
abroad  were  likely  to  be  set  upon  by  thieves  and  robbed 
of  their  goods. 

Still,  in  the  worst  of  times,  trade  did  not  vanish 
altogether.  Though  the  wide-reaching  Roman  roads 
were  no  longer  kept  in  repair,  they  offered  ways  for 
the  adventurous  trader  to  journey  from  land  to  land. 
Even  the  most  fortunate  community  could  not  supply 
all  its  wants.  Iron  and  salt,  at  least,  usually  had  to 
be  brought  from  some  place  more  or  less  distant. 
Some  lands  were  better  for  grain,  and  others  for  cattle 
and  swine.  So  it  came  about  that  even  in  the  midst 
of  the  decline  of  old  Rome  a  little  traffic  was  kept  going. 

In  the  course  of  time,  new  market  towns  arose. 
Some  of  the  old  Roman  cities,  too,  after  a  period  of 
idleness  showed  signs  of  life  again,  or  new  towns 
were  built  upon  the  ruins  of  the  old.  The  monasteries 
inhabited  by  Christian  monks,  which  dotted  every 
country,  became  centers  to  which  men  journeyed  from 
far  and  wide.  In  them  the  wayfaring  merchant  could 
always  find  a  place  to  sleep  and  something  to  eat. 


COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION 


191 


At  certain  favorable  points,  annual  fairs  were  held, 
at  which  local  goods  were  traded  for  iron,  salt,  and  other 
merchandise.  At  other  favorable  points,  market  towns 
sprang  up,  often  under  royal  protection.  In  the  days 
of  Alfred  the  Great,  English  merchants  journeyed  often 
to  the  continent  to  trade  at  the  French  fairs,  even  as 
far  away  as  Marseilles. 


CHURCH  OF  THE  HOLY  SEPULCHRE 


From  an  old  print 


The  Crusades  and  Commerce.  By  a  strange  stroke  of 
fortune,  the  trade  of  Europe  was  increased  by  the  rise 
of  the  Mohammedans  (p.  169),  who  threatened  to 
overwhelm  Christendom.  All  the  eastern  and  south- 
ern shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  including  Palestine 
with  the  tomb  of  the  Savior,  fell  into  their  hands. 


192  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

To  rescue  the  Holy  Land  from  the  Mohammedans, 
the  Europeans  of  all  nations  began,  in  1096,  a  series 
of  wars  known  as  the  Crusades.  These  lasted  for  more 
than  two  hundred  years.  Kings,  princes,  knights, 
common  soldiers,  monks,  peasants,  artisans,  and  even 
little  children  flocked  to  the  armies  that  made  the 
perilous  journeys  to  the  distant  Palestine.  In  these 
crusades,  thousands  of  people  perished  by  the  wayside 
or  on  the  battlefield.  Other  thousands  lived  to  make 
their  way  home,  bearing  stirring  tales  of  their  adventures 
and  of  the  countries  through  which  they  had  passed. 

The  tomb  of  the  Savior  was  not  permanently  won 
for  Christendom  by  the  crusaders.  As  often  happens, 
the  results  were  very  different  from  what  had  been 
expected.  Instead  of  hating  the  Mohammedans  and 
all  their  ideas,  the  crusaders  were  deeply  affected  by 
their  way  of  living.  Men  from  England,  France, 
Germany,  and  Spain  acquired  new  wants  and  tastes 
as  they  beheld  the  luxuries  of  the  East.  They  were 
no  longer  content  with  the  rough  life  they  had  led. 
Henceforth  they  must  have  spices,  silks,  tapestries, 
rugs,  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  and  precious  stones 
from  the  East.  Their  neighbors  caught  the  spirit  as 
they  heard  wondrous  stories  of  far  countries,  rich  in 
luxuries. 

Moreover,  enterprising  persons  from  western  Europe 
had  seen  the  splendor  of  Constantinople,  where  the 
remnants  of  Rome's  former  glory  were  to  be  found. 
Adventurers  then  learned  how  to  traffic  with  the 


COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION 


193 


merchants  of  the 
East  and  heard 
from  them  many 
tales  of  India  and 
China.  Especially 
did  the  Italians 
profit  from  the 
crusades.  The  mer- 
chants of  Genoa 
and  Venice  heaped 
up  great  fortunes 
by  selling  supplies 
to  the  crusading 
armies.  In  the 
train  of  the  vic- 
tors, they  founded 
colonies  and  trad- 
ing centers  on 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

EUROPEAN  ATTENTION  FIXED  UPON  THE  EAST 

The  Steady  Growth  of  Oriental  Trade.  For  more 
than  two  hundred  years  after  the  seventh  and  last 
great  crusade,  in  1272,  trade  in  eastern  wares  steadily 
grew  in  volume.  During  this  period,  the  Italians 
abandoned  the  long  overland  route  to  England  through 
France  and  adopted  the  plan  of  sending  their 
goods  by  ships  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  The 
great  mercantile  houses  of  Genoa,  Florence,  and  Venice 


From  an  old  print 

SALADIN,  A  MOHAMMEDAN  WARRIOR 


194       OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

had  their  branches  in  The  Netherlands  and  England. 
They  bought  lead,  tin,  wool,  and  alum  from  the  English 
and  gave  in  exchange  wines,  tea,  silks,  spices,  perfumes, 
porcelains,  precious  stones,  tapestries,  and  rugs.  In 
vain  did  English  moralists  lament  that  their  country- 
men were  trading  useful  things  like  tin  and  wool  for 
spices,  sweet  wines,  and  other  trifles  "  which  fatally 
blur  our  eyes."  Englishmen  learned  to  like  luxuries 
so  much  that  preaching  against  "  fancy  goods  "  could 
not  stop  their  sale. 

The  Italians  made  great  profits  from  this  trade. 
They  founded  banks  and  lent  money  to  kings  engaged 
in  wars.  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and 
English  merchants  looked  with  envy  upon  the  gains 
of  their  Italian  rivals  and  longed  to  get  into  "  the  golden 
East  "  themselves.  Indeed,  later  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury English  merchants  began  business  for  themselves 
in  the  eastern  Mediterranean.  By  that  time  all 
western  Europe  was  deeply  stirred  over  Oriental  and 
Indian  trade. 

The  Old  Trade  Routes.  The  goods  which  were 
enriching  the  Italians  and  delighting  the  purchasers 
in  western  Europe  came  to  the  West  by  many  routes, 
all  of  which  led  through  the  Mediterranean.  One  or 
more  overland  lines  extended  all  the  way  from  Peking, 
China,  to  the  Black  Sea  and  Constantinople.  Another 
line  stretched  from  India  through  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
the  city  of  Bagdad  to  Constantinople.  Still  other  routes 
ran  through  the  Red  Sea  to  ports  on  the  Mediterranean. 


COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION 


195 


196  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

The  overland  journeys  were  made  by  long  trains 
of  camels  heavily  laden  with  boxes  and  bales  of  mer- 
chandise. These  trips  were,  at  best,  perilous  and 
expensive.  Goods  from  India  had  to  be  packed  and 
unpacked  many  times.  For  example,  they  were 
carried  overland  to  the  ports  on  the  west  coast  of  India  ; 
there  they  were  placed  on  board  ship  and  carried  to 
the  headwaters  of  the  Persian  Gulf ;  at  that  point 
they  were  put  on  camels  and  taken  overland  to  the 
shores  of  the  Black  Sea  ;  thence  they  went  by  boat 
to  the  Constantinople  market.  At  Constantinople 
the  goods  passed  into  the  hands  of  Italian  traders 
who  shipped  them,  perhaps,  to  Venice.  Venetian 
merchants  then  carried  them  to  Marseilles  and  over- 
land through  France  to  the  English  Channel,  thence 
by  boat  to  London,  and  from  London  often  to  a  final 
destination  in  some  inland  town. 

The  cost  of  freight  for  such  a  journey  was  necessarily 
heavy,  and  each  merchant  through  whose  hands  the 
goods  passed  took  his  toll  of  profits.  A  pound  of 
cinnamon  often  sold  in  an  English  or  German  market 
for  twenty-five  times  its  original  cost  in  India.  The 
losses,  too,  were  great.  The  land  was  infested  by 
robbers  and  the  sea  by  pirates.  Wars  were  constantly 
being  waged  between  the  Italians  and  the  Turks. 
When  the  latter,  in  1453,  captured  Constantinople, 
the  greatest  trading  center  of  the  Near  East  passed 
out  of  the  hands  of  Christians  and  into  the  control  of 
the  hated  "  infidels."  Long  before  that  event,  how- 


COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION  197 

ever,  the  Italians  had  begun  a  search  for  a  water  route 
around  Africa. 

The  Travelers  to  the  East.  Western  people  were 
not  content  merely  to  receive  goods  from  the  East. 
Naturally,  they  became  curious  about  the  countries 
from  which  silks  and  spices  came.  They  wanted  to 
know  more  about  the  fabled  lands  and  to  see  them 
with  their  own  eyes.  Christian  missionaries,  daunted 
by  no  perils,  went  to  convert  the  heathen.  A  writer 
of  the  third  century,  telling  of  successful  missions, 
declared  :  "  We  can  count  up  in  our  reckoning  things 
achieved  in  India,  among  the  Chinese,  Persians,  and 
Medes."  In  1245  a  missionary  was  sent  by  the  pope 
far  beyond  the  Black  Sea  into  "  the  land  of  the  Great 
Khan."  On  his  return  this  man  wrote  a  lively  account 
of  his  visit.  He  praised  highly  the  people  of  Cathay, 
as  he  named  the  land  of  the  Chinese ;  he  vowed  that 
their  country  was  "  very  rich  in  grain,  wine,  gold, 
silver,  silk,  and  everything  which  tends  to  the  support 
of  mankind."  Ten  years  later  another  missionary, 
sent  by  the  king  of  France,  came  back  and  told  aston- 
ishing tales  of  "  little  fellows  ?:  with  "  very  narrow 
eyes,"  some  of  whom  lived  in  a  town  that  had 
"  silver  walls  and  gold  battlements." 

A  few  more  years  passed  and  two  famous  Venetian 
merchants,  the  Polo  brothers,  went  overland  to  China 
and  visited  the  emperor  of  the  Mongols  at  Peking. 
On  a  later  visit,  they  took  with  them  young  Marco 
Polo,  who  stayed  many  years  in  China.  Marco  jour- 


198  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

neyed  from  city  to  city  and  learned  about  the  trade 
and  habits  of  the  Chinese. 

When  he  returned  to  Venice  in  1295  bringing  dia- 
monds, rubies,  and  sapphires,  he  stirred  the  whole 
city  by  his  stones.  He  boasted  to  his  friends  of  his 
exploits  ;  these  were  set  down  in  a  book,  which  de- 
scribed at  great  length  the  land  he  had  visited.  He 
told  of  the  Chinese  emperor's  splendid  palace  with 
its  walls  of  burnished  gold  and  silver,  its  jeweled  panels, 
and  its  gorgeous  tapestries.  He  told  of  his  visit  to  the 
royal  court  where,  he  said,  princes  wore  robes  of  silk 
and  beaten  gold  and  girdles  set  with  precious  stones. 
Never  had  such  a  tale  appeared,  except  in  fairy  stories. 
Polo's  book  was  in  great  demand.  It  aroused  the 
interest  of  all  who  read  it  —  kings  and  princes,  as  well 
as  merchants  and  sailors. 

The  Spread  of  Knowledge  about  the  East.  After 
the  Polos'  day,  many  new  books  were  written  about 
Asia.  In  1307,  a  monk  from  Armenia,  who  lived  in 
France,  wrote  a  geography  of  Asia  with  valuable  his- 
torical notes.  An  Italian  commercial  agent,  Pego- 
lotti,  published  a  handbook  and  guide  for  merchants 
doing  business  with  the  Far  East.  He  explained  how 
goods  were  packed,  money  exchanged,  and  tariffs 
paid.  He  carefully  described  the  trade  routes  and 
gave  good  advice  about  traveling  in  safety  and  comfort. 
This  book  shows  clearly  that  the  road  to  Cathay  was 
often  traveled  and  that  a  vast  amount  of  goods  was 
handled  by  the  merchants.  Among  the  things  listed 


COMMERCE    AND    EXPLORATION  199 

by  this  writer  were  copper,  pepper,  cotton,  madder, 
oil,  flax,  ermines,  furs,  pearls,  almonds,  sulphur,  and 
nutmegs,  cinnamon,  and  other  spices. 

By  1350  there  were  probably  merchants  in  every 
large  town  from  London  to  Venice  who  could  talk 
intelligently  about  the  long  routes  to  the  East  and 
about  India  and  China.  Monks  in  the  monasteries, 
merchants  in  their  shops,  sailors  and  longshoremen  at 
the  docks,  and  many  a  scholar  poring  over  his  books 
by  that  time  knew  something  about  "the  fabled  East." 

THE  SERVICE  OF  SCIENCE  AND  LEARNING 

The  Making  of  Geographies.  While  merchants 
and  travelers  were  going  to  and  from  the  East,  bearing 
tales  of  endless  wonder,  geographers  were  busy  too. 
They  pieced  together  bits  of  information  and  began  to' 
draw  maps  of  Asia.  As  the  beginning  for  their  work, 
they  had  the  writings  of  the  ancients.  Greek  scholars, 
long  before  the  time  of  Christ,  had  taught  that  the 
world  was  round.  Moreover,  they  had  written  many 
books  about  geography.  Some  fragments  of  Greek 
writings  had  been  copied  down  by  a  famous  geographer, 
Claudius  Ptolemy,  who  lived  in  Egypt.  In  the  second 
century  after  Christ,  Ptolemy  wrote  a  great  deal  about 
the  lands  and  waters  of  the  earth. 

Though  Christian  writers  thought  of  the  other 
world  rather  than  of  this,  they  did  not  by  any  means 
neglect  geography.  One  of  them,  writing  in  the  sixth 
century,  seems  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with 


200  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

India  and  shows  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Greek 
writings.  Another,  in  1306,  drew  a  map  which  showed 
Africa  ending  in  a  point.  Still  another,  Fra  Mauro, 
a  lay  brother  in  a  Venetian  monastery,  made,  about 
1459,  his  unique  map  of  the  world  in  which  he  used 
the  knowledge  gained  by  Marco  Polo  and  other  trav- 
elers. Mauro's  map  gave  a  very  clear  idea  of  the 
Mediterranean  basin  and  western  Europe.  It  also 
showed  (i)  Africa  with  the  water  route  all  around 
it,  (2)  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  (3)  a  rough  outline  of 
Asia  with  the  Ganges  River  rudely  drawn.  With  much 
truth,  men  mixed  many  errors  and  all  kinds  of  absurd 
guesses  ;  but  keen  minds  were  slowly  separating  the 
truth  from  the  rumors. 

Toscanelli.  Perhaps  the  most  famous  of  these 
early  geographers  was  Toscanelli,  an  astronomer  and 
librarian,  who  lived  in  Florence  until  his  death  in  1482. 
He  early  became  interested  in  stories  of  travel,  includ- 
ing those  of  Marco  Polo.  Through  the  busy  years  of 
a  long  life,  he  worked  steadily  at  geography  until  his 
fame  spread  far  and  wide.  Navigators  went  to  talk 
with  him  and  princes  sought  his  advice.  Toscanelli 
finally  came  to  believe  that  the  world  was  round  and 
that  India  could  be  reached  by  sailing  west.  He  wrote 
a  letter  and  made  a  map  giving  his  ideas.  Though 
the  map  was  lost,  the  letter  was  kept  and  from  it  we 
can  see  clearly  what  was  in  Toscanelli's  mind.  It 
is  thought  that  Columbus  had  both  the  letter  and  the 
map  when  he  sailed  in  1492  ;  but  this  is  not  known. 


COMMERCE    AND    EXPLORATION  2OI 

Knowledge  of  the  Earth's  Shape.  Naturally,  as 
men  studied  geography  they  came  to  think  more  and 
more  about  the  shape  of  the  earth.  It  was  the  common 
view  that  the  earth  was  flat.  It  seemed  flat,  and  nearly 


From  an  old  print 

PERILS  OF  THE  DEEP 

everybody  took  the  appearance  for  the  truth.  Still 
there  had  been,  from  very  early  times,  a  few  scholars 
who  believed  it  to  be  round  (p.  199).  Aristotle,  as  early 
as  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  taught  that  the  earth  was  a 
globe.  Nearly  four  hundred  years  later,  the  geogra- 
pher Strabo  said  that  this  theory  was  sound ;  so  also 
did  Roger  Bacon,  an  English  monk  who  lived  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  say  that 
India  could  be  reached  by  sailing  west  from  Spain. 


202  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

The  Science  of  Navigation.  While  the  map-makers 
were  busy  tracing  the  shape  of  continents,  other  men 
of  science  were  finding  ways  of  guiding  ships  over 
pathless  oceans.  Sometime  in  the  thirteenth  century 
there  appeared  among  the  sailors  of  Europe  a  tiny 
instrument  that  made  it  possible  for  them  to  tell  di- 
rections even  on  the  darkest  night.  This  tiny  thing, 
the  compass,  was  invented  by  some  unknown  genius. 
The  date  of  the  invention  is  likewise  unknown.  In 
English  books  written  about  1180,  we  read  of  a  "  needle 
on  a  pivot  which  revolves  until  the  point  is  north." 
In  a  little  while  every  ocean-going  ship  had  its  compass. 
As  the  years  passed,  other  sailing  instruments  were 
made.  The  astrolabe  was  improved  so  that  the  sailor 
could  find  his  distance  from  the  equator  by  taking  the 
height  of  the  sun.  When  the  time  came  for  the  voyages 
which  revealed  the  New  World,  sea  captains  could  hold 
their  ships  to  a  given  course  and  keep  a  record  of  their 
sailing. 

NAVIGATORS,  EXPLORERS,  AND  CONQUERORS 

The  Navigators.  As  travelers  and  scholars  gained 
knowledge,  men  of  affairs  applied  it.  Italian  sailors 
took  the  lead.  They  chafed  at  the  expense  of  trade 
by  the  overland  routes  and  wondered  about  a  water 
route  around  Africa.  They  had  found  it  easy  to  sail 
out  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  and  far  north  to 
England.  It  occurred  to  them,  naturally  enough,  that 
it  would  be  equally  easy  to  sail  south  around  Africa. 


THE  AGE  OF  DISCOVERY 
203 


204 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


As  early  as   1292   they  tried    it;    but  at   length  they 
gave  it  up  as  hopeless. 

The  Italians,  however,  aroused  the  interest  of  the 
Portuguese.  On  their  way  to  and  from  the  ports  of 
The  Netherlands  and  England,  Italian  seamen  often 
put  in  at  Lisbon.  Many  a  one  stayed  to  make  his 

home  in  Portugal.  The 
Portuguese  were  likewise 
moved  by  the  huge  profits 
which  the  Italians  made  on 
Oriental  goods.  They  began 
to  think  about  a  new  route  to 
Persia,  India,  and  China.  So 
it  happened  that  Portuguese 
sailors  became  the  pioneers 
in  the  work  of  exploring  the 
high  seas. 

The  way  for  this  great  work 
was  made  easier  by  the  labors 
of  a  son  of  the 


From  an  oia  print 
QUEEN  ISABELLA,  THE  PATRONESS      king,  Prince  Henry,  famOUS  in 

history  as  "the  Navigator." 

Though  brave  in  battle  and  skilled  in  military  science, 
he  turned  from  the  arts  of  war  to  the  arts  of  peace. 
He  refused  a  high  military  command.  He  chose  instead 
to  live  on  the  lonely  cape  of  Sagres  at  the  remotest  point 
of  Portugal  looking  out  southwest  to  the  sea.  There 
he  built  a  home  and  an  observatory.  There  he  brought 
together  astronomers,  geographers,  and  map-makers. 


COMMERCE    AND    EXPLORATION  205 

He  sent  expedition  after  expedition  down  the  coast 
of  Africa  in  search  of  the  southern  passage  to  the 
Indies.  Out  of  his  own  purse  he  bought  maps  and 
books.  He  maintained  a  school  in  which  seamen  were 
trained  to  sail  their  ships  according  to  the  best  plans 
that  science  could  afford. 

Prince  Henry's  men  discovered  Madeira  and  the 
Azores.  They  rounded  Cape  Bajador,  nearly  a  thou- 
sand miles  to  the  south  of  Sagres  on  the  African  coast. 
They  sighted  the  waters  of  the  Senegal  River  flooding 
out  to  the  sea.  They  swept  away  the  myths  about 
the  dangers  of  long  sea  voyages.  As  a  result  Prince 
Henry,  in  putting  aside  military  glory,  found  lasting 
fame  as  a  helper  of  mankind.  When  he  died,  in  1460, 
he  left  behind  a  large  band  of  skilled  sailors  who  carried 
on  the  good  work  he  had  so  nobly  begun. 

The  Great  Explorers.  The  men  who  carried  forward 
the  work  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator  found  a  water 
route  to  India  and  discovered  a  new  world  (First  Book, 
pp.  1-50).  A  Portuguese  sailor,  Bartholomew  Diaz, 
in  1486  rounded  the  point  of  Africa  and  gave  it  the 
name  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  sign  that  the  victory 
over  the  seas  was  soon  to  be  won.  Six  years  later 
Columbus,  bearing  the  flag  of  Spain,  made  the  first 
of  his  four  famous  voyages  that  were  to  unfold  a  new 
continent  to  European  eyes.  A  little  later  came  the 
astounding  news  that  Vasco  da  Gama  had  rounded  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  sailed  straight  to  India,  and  re- 
turned home  safely  to  Portugal  (1497-99). 


206 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


About  the  same  time,  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot,  in 
the  service  of  the  English  king,  sailed  to  the  coast  of 

North  America 
and  gave  to  Eng- 
land a  claim  to  its 
eastern  shores.  In 
1507  the  new  con- 
tinents were  chris- 
tened America  in 
honor  of  the  ex- 
plorer, Amerigo 
Vespucci,  who,  it 
was  claimed,  made 
four  voyages  of 
discovery  to  the 
New  World. 

In  1519  Ma- 
gellan decided  to 
outstrip  his  fellow 
explorers  by  sail- 
ing all  the  way 
around  the  world. 
He  perished  on 
the  journey,  but 
some  of  his  sailors 
completed  the  historic  voyage  three  years  afterwards. 

A  little  more  than  ten  years  later,  the  king  of  France 
took  a  hand  in  the  new  enterprise.  He  sent  out  one 
of  his  bravest  sailors,  Cartier.  This  bold  seaman  ex- 


From  an  old,  print 

COLUMBUS  ON  THE  DECK  OF  His  SHIP 


COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION 


207 


plored  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  laid  claim  to  the 
St.  Lawrence  basin. 

Within  fifty  years  of  Columbus'  first  voyage,  there 
was  a  lively  trade  between  Europe  and  India.  Hun- 
dreds of  islands  and  two  vast  continents  in  the  western 
hemisphere  were  rapidly  being  opened  up. 


From  an  old  print 


SPANISH  CONQUERORS  DESTROYING  MEXICAN  IDOLS 

The  Spanish  Conquerors.  Leadership  in  exploring 
the  mainland  of  North  and  South  America  was  under- 
taken by  warriors  bearing  the  banner  of  Spain  and  by 
missionaries  bearing  the  cross  of  Christ.  One  of  the 
great  Spanish  warriors,  Ferdinand  Cortez,  in  1519 
discovered  Mexico  —  a  vast  empire  with  fertile  farms, 
prosperous  cities,  and  great  stores  of  gold  and  silver. 


208        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

In  a  short  time  he  conquered  Mexico,  looted  its  treas- 
uries, and  subjected  it  to  Spanish  rule. 

Another  warrior,  Pizarro,  soon  afterward  heard  of 
Peru,  another  rich  country  to  the  south.  With  a  hand- 
ful of  soldiers  he  overthrew  the  native  king.  In  a  short 
time,  he  raised  the  Spanish  flag  over  the  dazed  and 
beaten  natives,  and  carried  off  tons  of  precious  metals. 

A  third  Spanish  captain,  De  Soto,  sought  fame  and 
wealth  by  making  an  expedition  into  Florida  and  the 
wilderness  to  the  west.  Instead  of  great  cities,  how- 
ever, he  found  a  few  native  Indians  living  in  wretched 
huts ;  instead  of  fortune,  he  met  his  death  on  the 
banks  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Other  explorers,  work- 
ing northward  from  Mexico,  penetrated  the  territories 
now  included  in  Texas,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico, 
planting  the  Spanish  flag  in  many  a  trading  post  and 
mission  which  they  founded. 

Before  the  sixteenth  century  was  half  over,  the 
Spanish  king  had  a  vast  empire  in  the  two  Americas. 
Streams  of  gold  and  silver  were  pouring  into  his  country. 
The  sails  of  Spanish  galleons  were  seen  amid  the  curi- 
ous junks  in  Chinese  harbors  ;  in  the  strange  waters  of 
Java,  Sumatra,  and  India  ;  in  the  ports  of  West  India 
and  both  Americas  ;  and  bending  before  the  storms 
of  two  capes,  Good  Hope  and  the  Horn. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  Why  was  a  more  extensive  commerce  possible  in  the 
days  of  the  Roman  empire  than  after  the  fall  of  the  empire  ? 


COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION  209 

(Think  of  the  ways  in  which  a  large  number  of  small,  independent 
states  would  make  the  transportation  of  goods  over  long  dis- 
tances a  difficult  undertaking.)  2.  What  effect,  if  any,  did  the 
supreme  importance  of  religion  during  the  middle  ages  have  upon 
commerce  ?  (For  example,  would  there  be  so  great  a  demand 
for  luxuries?)  3.  The  Romans  built  splendid  roads  throughout 
the  empire ;  how  would  these  roads  have  been  likely  to  fare  when 
the  empire  was  split  up  ?  4.  How  would  the  lack  of  a.  strong 
law  enforced  by  a  central  government  affect  the  safety  of  travel  ? 
5.  What  were  the  "  Crusades,"  and  what  was  their  most  important 
influence  on  the  life  of  Europe  ?  How  long  after  the  fall  of  Rome 
was  the  first  crusade  undertaken  ? 

II.  I.    When  trade  between  western  Europe  and    the  eastern 
countries  had  once  been    reopened,  what  decided  advantage  did 
the    Italian    cities    have    for    controlling    the    trade  ?       2.    Trace 
on  the  map  (p.  203)  the  routes  by  which  goods  from  China  and 
India    were    brought     to    Italy,    Spain,    France,    and    England. 
3.    How  did    the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  affect 
this    trade?     In  what  other  way  have  we  found  that  this  event 
influenced    western    Europe  ? 

III.  i.    Why  was  it  difficult  for  people  living  in  the  middle  ages 
to  think  of  the  earth  as  a  sphere  ?    What  reasons  have  you  learned 
from  your  study  of  geography  to  justify  your  belief  that  the  earth 
is  round  ?     Which  of  these  reasons  may  Aristotle  have  thought  of 
as  a  basis  for  his  belief  that  the  earth  was  round  ?       2.    Why  was 
the  compass  so  important  an  invention  ?     How  had  the  Romans 
been  able  to  manage  their  navigation  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
without  such  instruments  ?     3.    What  advantage  did  the  astrolabe 
give  to  the  navigator  ? 

IV.  i.    The  Italians  found  it  possible  to  sail  their  ships  through 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  and  thence  north  to  England.     Why  was 
the    southern    route    around    Africa    so    much    more    difficult  ? 
2.    Why  is  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator  remembered   as  one  of 
the    great    benefactors    of    mankind  ?     What    important    events 


210        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

grew  out  of  the  work  of  Prince  Henry?  3.  Who  finally  dis- 
covered the  "ocean  route"  from  western  Europe  to  India? 
4.  In  the  attempts  to  discover  this  route,  the  Western  world 
had  been  discovered.  Which  turned  out  in  the  end  to  be  the 
more  important  event,  and  why  ?  Which  was  considered  at  the 
time  the  more  important  event,  and  why  ? 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

I.  Trace  on  the  map  on  p.  203  as  many  as  you  can  of  the  voy- 
ages described  in  this  chapter;  of  the  land  journeys.  2.  What 
line  on  that  map  separates  the  northern  from  the  southern  hem- 
isphere ?  All  the  nations  of  any  importance  at  the  time  of  Co- 
lumbus lay  entirely  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  How,  then,  can 
you  explain  the  fact  that  so  many  of  the  important  voyages  of 
discovery  were  partly  or  chiefly  in  the  southern  hemisphere  ? 
3.  Would  Columbus  have  seen  the  value  of  the  Suez  Canal  ?  Of 
the  Panama  Canal  ?  Would  Magellan  ?  4.  What  continent  did 
Magellan  just  miss  discovering?  5.  Marco  Polo's  trip  to  China 
was  entirely  overland.  He  started  from  Acre  (Akka)  in  Asia 
Minor  and  traveled  through  Persia,  over  the  Pamir  Plateau, 
through  what  is  now  eastern  Turkestan,  and  across  the  Desert 
of  Gobi  to  Shangtu,  in  northern  China.  Trace  this  route  on  the 
map  on  p.  203.  Compare  this  map  with  the  map  of  Asia  in  your 
textbook  in  geography,  and  estimate  the  great  distance  that  Polo 
traveled,  and  see  why  it  took  him  four  years  to  make  the  journey. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

BLYTH,  ESTELLE  —  Jerusalem  and  the  Crusades;  Dodge. 

GRAY,  G.   Z.  —  The  Children's   Crusades;  Houghton  Mifflin. 

HALL  —  The  Boy's  Book  of  Chivalry,  xi-xv. 

O'NEILL  —  The  Story  of  the  World,  xxi,  xxiv,  xxx. 

TAPPAN  —  Heroes  of  the  Middle  Ages,  xxvi-xxxvi. 

VAN  LOON  — The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  xxxiv,  xxxviii,  xli. 

WARREN  —  Stories  from  English  History,  vii. 


COMMERCE  AND  EXPLORATION  211 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW  OF  CHAPTERS  V-VIII 

1.  If  we  think  of  the  middle  ages  as  beginning  with  the  fall 
of  Rome  and  ending  about  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America, 
how  many  years  did  this  period  cover  ?     Compare  this  with  the 
period  covered  by  recorded  history  up  to  the  fall  of  Rome ;    with 
the  period  between  the  first  Roman  kings  and  the  fall  of  Rome ; 
with  the  period  between  the  discovery  of  America  and  the  pres- 
ent time;    with   the  period  of  our   national   history  (from  1776 
to  the  present  time). 

2.  Make  a  list  of  ten  events  and  topics  occurring  during  the 
middle  ages  that  you  consider  the  most  important ;   for  example, 
the  spread  of  Christianity,  the  rise  of  nations,  the  invention  of 
printing,  and  the  journey  of  Marco  Polo.     Arrange  these  in  the 
order  of  their  happening,  and  then  try  to  rearrange  them  in  the 
order  of  their  importance,  giving  reasons  for  the  importance   as- 
signed to  each.     Keep  this  list,  for  you  may  change  your  mind 
on  some  points  as  you  go  on  with  your  study  of  modern  history. 

3.  Let  each  pupil  think  of  this  question:    Who  are  the  prom- 
inent persons  of  medieval  history  that  you  would  like  best  to 
know?     Then    take    a    vote   and    have    "reception    committees" 
appointed  to  gather  information  about  these  persons  and  through 
this  information  bring  the  persons  themselves  to  meet  the  class. 

HISTORY  STORIES,  MYTHS,  AND  LEGENDS  FOR 
CHAPTERS  V-VIII 

BALDWIN,  J. —  Stories  of  Siegfried;  Scribners. 

The  Story  of  Roland ;  Scribners. 

BUTLER,  ISABEL  —  The  Song  of  Roland;   Houghton  Mifflin. 
CHURCH,  A.  J. —  Stories  of  Charlemagne;  Macmillan. 
DASENT,  G.  W. —  Norse  Fairy  Tales;  Lippincott. 
DUTTON,  MAUDE  B. —  Little  Stories  of  England;  American  Book. 
HAAREN,  J.  H.,  AND  POLAND,  A.  B.  —  Famous  Men  of  the  Middle 
Ages ;  American  Book. 


212        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

LAMPREY,  L.  —  In  the  Days  of  the  Guild;  Stokes. 

Masters  of  the  Guild;  Stokes. 

LANIER,  SIDNEY,  (Editor)  —  The  Boy's  Froissart;  Scribners. 
LANIER,  SIDNEY  —  The  Boy's  King  Arthur;  Scribners. 
PYLE,  HOWARD  —  Robin  Hood;  Dutton. 

STEIN,  EVALEEN  —  Our  Little  Norman  Cousin  of  Long  Ago;  Page. 
STEPHEN,  JAMES  —  Irish  Fairy  Tales;  Macmillan. 
WINSLOW,  C.  V. —  Our  Little  Carthaginian  Cousin  of  Long  Ago; 
Page. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE   PROTESTANT  REFORMATION 

WHILE  kings  were  building  up  their  power  in  Europe 
and  bold  explorers  were  opening  America  for  settle- 
ment, the  old  dispute  between  the  pope  and  the  monarch 
-Church  and  State  —  broke  out  afresh.  As  you  will 
remember,  Christianity  was  at  first  the  belief  of  small 
and  persecuted  groups  of  people.  Three  centuries 
later,  it  was  made  the  official  religion  of  the  Roman 
empire.  The  pope  at  Rome  became  the  head  of  the 
Church.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire, 
there  appeared  many  kings  in  Western  Christendom, 
who  often  quarreled  with  the  pope,  although  they 
were  loyal  to  the  Catholic  faith.  For  a  time  the 
quarrels  ceased  ;  but  in  a  little  while  after  the  year 
1500  they  were  renewed.  Before  this  new  dispute 
was  ended,  several  nations  had  denied  altogether  the 
right  of  the  pope  to  control  in  religious  matters,  and 
a  number  of  new  religious  denominations  had  come 
into  being.  These  sects  were  known  as  Protestants 
because  they  protested  against  the  Catholic  faith. 
The  religious  movement  which  filled  the  sixteenth 
century  with  turmoil  was  known  as  the  Protestant 

Reformation. 

213 


214  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

For  more  than  a  century,  Europe  was  torn  by  religious 
wars  between  Catholics  and  Protestants.  There 
were  civil  wars  and  there  were  wars  between  nations. 
The  contending  factions  burned  or  otherwise  cruelly 
punished  many  of  their  opponents.  Thousands  of 
people  were  driven  by  this  religious  persecution  to 
seek  refuge  in  America.  The  masses  everywhere  were 
aroused  by  the  disputes  of  kings  and  preachers  as  well 
as  by  the  disputes  of  kings  and  the  pope.  They  began 
to  take  a  deep  interest  in  matters  of  the  mind  and  to 
read  the  Bible  for  themselves  and  hold  their  own  opin- 
ions. Thus  popular  education  on  a  wide  scale  was 
started  in  the  age  of  the  Reformation.  The  people  at 
large  had  never  read  anything  before.  So  we  may 
truly  say  that  the  sixteenth  century  is  among  the  most 
important  periods  in  the  long  history  of  mankind. 

THE  PROTESTANT  REFORMATION  IN  GERMANY 

Early  Criticism  of  the  Church.  Although  the  Prot- 
estant revolt  against  the  authority  of  the  pope  in 
the  sixteenth  century  first  took  form  in  Germany, 
there  had  been  criticism  of  the  Church  in  other  coun- 
tries. Indeed,  from  time  to  time  during  the  middle 
ages,  attacks  had  been  made  both  on  the  pope  and  on 
the  Catholic  faith  itself.  The  kings  of  France  and 
England,  though  loyal  Catholics,  had  many  times 
complained  bitterly  because  the  pope  had  appointed 
Italian  clergymen  to  high  church  offices  within  their 
realms.  They  had  also  complained  because  the  pope 


THE   PROTESTANT   REFORMATION  215 

had  collected  so  much  money  in  fees  and  contributions 
from  their  subjects. 

In  1393  the  English  king  had  his  parliament  pass 
a  law  forbidding  Englishmen  to  take  offices  in  the 
Church  without  the  king's  consent.  It  declared  that 
all  who  refused  to  obey  should  be  punished.  About 
the  same  time  an  English  priest,  John  Wyclif,  openly 
taught  that  all  the  property  of  the  Church  in  England 
could  be  seized  by  the  king  and  used  for  public  purposes. 
He  also  said  that  the  service  of  a  priest  was  not  neces- 
sary for  salvation  ;  that  any  person  could  approach 
God  directly,  without  the  aid  of  anyone  else. 

The  followers  of  Wyclif  were  easily  put  down  in 
England ;  but,  far  away  in  Bohemia,  John  Huss 
spread  similar  ideas  freely  for  a  long  time.  At  last, 
however,  he  was  condemned  and  burned  as  a  heretic. 
Protests  against  the  Church  then  died  away  and  its 
authority  seemed  unquestioned. 

Growth  of  Criticism.  At  the  opening  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  there  came  another  outburst  of  criticism 
against  the  officials  and  practices  of  the  Church,  this 
time  in  Germany.  The  attacks  were  at  first  confined 
to  certain  minor  matters.  It  was  said  that  the  monks 
were  often  lazy  and  worthless  fellows  who  lived  by 
begging.  It  was  alleged  that  the  fees  charged  by 
priests  for  marriages,  burials,  and  managing  the  prop- 
erty of  deceased  persons  were  too  high.  Complaints 
were  made  against  the  exemption  of  Church  property 
from  taxation  ;  it  was  said  that  its  property  should 


216 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


be  taxed  like  that  of  any  citizen.  The  bishops  and 
other  high  church  officers  who  had  great  wealth  were 
accused  of  living  in  luxury,  while  the  poor  village 
priests  often  had  scarcely  enough  to  keep  soul  and 
body  together.  Above  all,  the  critics  objected  to  the 

large  sums  of  German  money 
that  were  paid  each  year  to 
the  Church  at  Rome. 

The  leaders  in  such  criti- 
cism were  sometimes  priests 
themselves  who  attacked 
what  they  called  the  "  abuses" 
in  the  Church.  Among  them 
was  a  gentle  and  witty  scholar 
of  Holland,  Erasmus,  who 
thought  that  there  should  be 
a  reform  but  not  an  over- 
turning of  the  Church.  In  a 
little  book  called  The  Praise 
of  Folly,  he  poked  fun  at  the  monks  and  laughed  at 
scholars  who  disputed  all  day  over  some  foolish  ques- 
tion, such  as  "  How  many  angels  can  stand  on  the 
point  of  a  needle  ? "  Erasmus  laid  great  stress  on  right 
living.  He  thought  that  selfish  and  corrupt  men  should 
be  forced  out  of  high  places  in  the  Church.  He  de- 
clared that  men  should  care  more  about  the  teachings 
of  Christ  and  less  about  his  images.  Yet  Erasmus 
was  loyal  to  the  Catholic  Church  and  wanted  reforms 
to  be  brought  about  gradually  and  without  anger. 


From  ara  old  print 


ERASMUS 


THE   PROTESTANT   REFORMATION  217 

Martin   Luther   and   the   Revolt   against   the   Pope. 

Far  different  from  other  reformers  in  the  Church  was 
a  German  monk,  Martin  Luther,  who  lived  at  the  same 
time  as  Erasmus.  Though  the  son  of  a  slate-cutter, 
he  had  been  able  to  obtain  a  university  education  and 
to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of  law.  Against  the 
wishes  of  his  parents  he  entered  the  priesthood  and 
became  an  Augustine  monk.  Shortly  afterward  he 
was  made  a  teacher  of  theology  in  the  university  of 
Wittenberg,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  some  fifty  miles 
southwest  of  Berlin. 

While  Luther  was  busy  teaching,  a  Dominican  monk 
came  to  Wittenberg  to  raise  money  for  the  Church. 
Luther  was  stirred  to  anger  by  some  things  that  were 
said  and  done  by  this  monk.  He  thereupon  wrote 
out  ninety-five  theses,  or  statements  of  ideas  that  he 
believed  to  be  true.  Among  other  things  he  said 
that  any  Christian  who  felt  truly  sorry  for  his  sins 
would  be  forgiven.  He  added  that  a  common  man 
might  very  well  ask  why  the  pope,  who  was  very  rich, 
did  not  build  St.  Peter's  with  his  own  money  instead 
of  "  taking  that  of  the  poor  man."  This  was  in  1517. 

Three  years  later  Luther  and  his  writings  were  con- 
demned by  the  pope.  Luther  answered  by  burning 
the  decree  which  condemned  him.  The  break  had 
come.  Luther  denied  the  authority  of  the  pope  and 
declared  that  many  beliefs  taught  by  the  Church  were 
errors.  Above  all  he  thought  that  man  was  to  be 
saved,  not  by  good  works,  but  by  repenting  of  his  sins 


218 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


and  by  having  faith  that  God's  justice  would  save  the 
repentant  sinner. 

Luther  kept  on  teaching  his  doctrines,  protected  by 
a  powerful  German  prince,  until  his  death  in  1546. 
He  made  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  German 
language  for  the  use  of  the  common  people.  He  wrote 


un  old  print 


MARTIN  LUTHER  AND  THREE  FAMOUS  PROTESTANT  SCHOLARS 

hundreds  of  letters  and  books  on  religion.  He  appealed 
to  the  German  princes  to  bring  about  reforms  in  the 
Church.  But  he  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  idea  that 
people  should  take  the  matter  into  their  own  hands. 

The  Lutheran  Church.     At  first,  those  who  did  not 
like  Luther  made  fun  of  his  followers  by  calling  them 


THE   PROTESTANT   REFORMATION  219 

Lutherans.  This  term  of  scorn  was  finally  accepted 
by  them  as  a  term  of  honor.  As  the  years  passed,  many 
German  princes  adopted  certain  of  Luther's  teachings 
and  defied  the  authority  of  the  pope.  They  also  seized 
much  of  the  property  of  the  Church  and  monasteries 
that  lay  within  their  realms.  When  an  attempt  was 
made  to  restore  Catholic  beliefs  in  Germany,  a  number 
of  them  signed  a  great  "  protest "  against  it. 

All  efforts  to  bring  about  agreement  between  the 
pope  and  the  Protestants  were  vain.  In  1530  a  docu- 
ment was  drawn  up,  known  as  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
in  which  the  main  ideas  of  the  German  Protestants 
were  fully  set  forth.  This  Confession  became  the 
basis  of  the  new  Lutheran  faith  and  is  so  regarded  by 
Lutheran  churches  everywhere  to-day. 

Within  ten  years  after  Luther's  death,  the  states  of 
northern  Germany  and  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark had  broken  away  from  Rome  and  had  become 
Protestant  countries.  All  of  them  in  adopting  the 
new  faith  added  to  it  the  title  Evangelical,  which 
Luther  himself  had  used  to  describe  his  doctrines. 
As  evangel  meant  the  "  gospel,"  Luther  said  that  he 
was  merely  going  back  to  the  gospel  as  taught  by 
Christ  himself. 

The  two  centuries  which  followed  Luther's  age  were 
full  of  woe  for  Germany.  There  were  many  religious 
wars  among  the  Germans  themselves.  The  Catholic 
king  of  France  waged  war  after  war  on  the  Germans  in 
order  to  get  more  territories  along  the  Rhine.  In  many 


220        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

cases  these  territories  were  inhabited  by  Protestants. 
Beginning  late  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Prot- 
estants turned,  especially,  to  America  as  a  refuge. 
Thousands  of  them  fled  across  the  ocean  to  the  English 
colonies,  mainly  to  Pennsylvania  (First  Book,  p.  74). 
In  the  nineteenth  century,  after  the  religious  causes 
for  leaving  their  homeland  had  largely  disappeared, 
Germans  continued  to  come  to  America  in  great 
numbers. 

THE  PROTESTANT  REFORMATION  IN  ENGLAND 

Henry  VIII  and  the  Break  with  the  Pope.  When 
Martin  Luther  opened  his  stormy  career  as  a  reformer 
in  Germany,  England  had  a  powerful  king  by  the  name 
of  Henry  VIII.  Far  from  approving  Luther's  ideas, 
Henry  wrote  a  book  in  which  he  sharply  condemned 
them.  In  a  few  years,  however,  he  himself  was  engaged 
in  a  desperate  quarrel  with  the  pope.  He  wanted  to 
divorce  his  wife,  Katherine  of  Aragon,  and  to  marry  a 
woman  of  his  Court,  Anne  Boleyn.  The  pope  refused 
his  appeal  for  a  divorce  and  Henry  was  very  angry. 
Katherine's  nephew,  the  Holy  Roman  Emperor,  had 
just  seized  the  city  of  Rome  and  really  held  the  pope 
a  prisoner.  Henry  charged  that  the  pope  was  afraid 
to  grant  the  divorce  on  that  account. 

In  his  wrath,  Henry  declared  that  he,  himself,  would 
be  sole  master  in  England.  So  he  got  his  divorce 
from  an  English  court.  Then,  in  1534,  he  compelled 
his  parliament  to  pass  a  law  making  him  "  the  only 


THE   PROTESTANT   REFORMATION  221 

supreme  head  on  earth  of  the  Church  of  England." 
He  thereupon  seized  the  land  owned  by  the  monasteries 
and  divided  much  of  it  among  his  favorites. 
He  took  to  himself  the  right  to  appoint  bishops  and 
other  high  officials  in  the  Church.  He  forced  all  the 
clergy  to  accept  the  new  order.  Those  who  refused 
were  harshly  treated.  Some  were  banished,  others 
were  burned,  and  others  were  beheaded.  In  denying 
the  authority  of  the  pope  over  England,  however, 
Henry  at  first  made  no  important  changes  in  the  faith 
and  services  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Indeed,  he 
treated  those  who  wanted  religious  changes  as  savagely 
as  he  did  those  who  did  not  want  to  disown  the  pope. 

The  Growth  of  Protestantism  in  England.  After 
Henry  had  cast  off  the  rule  of  the  pope,  he  found  it 
hard  to  suppress  those  who  began  to  cast  off  the  Catho- 
lic faith  too.  In  attempting  to  do  this,  he  drove  many 
of  his  subjects  to  Germany.  There  they  learned  the 
doctrines  of  Martin  Luther  and  became  converts. 
Fired  with  new  zeal,  they  slipped  back  into  England 
to  spread  his  ideas. 

In  a  little  while  England,  too,  was  affected  by  these 
preachers  of  reform.  Some  of  them  turned  away  from 
the  leading  ideas  of  the  Catholic  religion.  Others 
declared  that  the  images  and  stained  windows  in  the 
churches  were  "  idolatrous."  Others  denounced  fast 
days  and  holy  days. 

When  Henry  died  and  the  crown  passed  to  his  son, 
Edward  VI,  in  1547,  the  Protestants  triumphed. 


222        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

New  articles  of  religious  faith  were  drawn  up  and  all 
English  people  were  forced  to  adopt  them.  Although 
the  Catholic  religion  was  later  restored  for  five  years 
under  Queen  Mary,  it  was  impossible  to  hold  to  the 
old  order.  England  was  destined  to  be  Protestant. 

The  Established  Church  of  England.  In  1558 
Queen  Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne.  Soon  after 
she  was  crowned,  the  parliament  adopted  a  form 
of  Protestant  faith  for  all  Englishmen  again.  By  a 
law  known  as  the  Act  of  Supremacy,  the  power  of  the 
pope  over  England  was  once  more  denied.  The  queen 
was  declared  to  be  supreme  in  religious  matters.  A 
creed  of  .thirty-nine  articles  of  faith  was  written  down 
and  every  one  was  ordered  to  accept  it.  A  uniform 
service  for  all  churches  was  prepared  and  all  clergy- 
men were  forced  to  follow  it.  In  short,  a  Church  of 
England  was  established  by  law.  Its  faith  and  services 
were  fixed  by  law.  All  people  were  required  to  attend 
its  services  and  believe  in  its  doctrines.  Punishments 
were  fixed  for  those  who  refused  to  obey. 

Moreover,  the  power  of  the  sovereign  was  greatly 
enlarged.  The  queen  could  appoint  all  bishops  and 
archbishops  and  forbid  the  clergy  to  hold  meetings 
without  her  consent.  To  call  the  queen  a  heretic 
was  treason.  To  attend  mass  was  made  a  crime. 
When  a  bishop  complained  to  Queen  Elizabeth  against 
the  seizure  of  some  of  his  lands,  she  scornfully  told 
him  that  she  had  made  him  and  would  unmake  him 
if  he  did  not  yield  the  property  at  once.  .  Both  Catholics 


THE   PROTESTANT   REFORMATION  223 

and  Protestants  who  openly  rejected  the  Established 
Church  were  cruelly  punished.  Having  set  up  this 
new  order,  Elizabeth  and  her  advisers  thought  that 
peace  would  come  to  the  troubled  realm. 

Puritans  and  Separatists.  But  there  was  to  be  no 
peace.  The  system  was  hardly  agreed  upon  before 
some  persons  sought  to  change  it.  A  very  powerful 
group,  which  grew  steadily  in  numbers,  wanted  to 
"  purify  "  the  new  church.  They  wanted  to  do  this 
by  omitting  parts  of  the  service,  taking  images  away 
from  church  buildings,  and  making  other  reforms. 
They  were  therefore  nicknamed  Puritans  by  their 
enemies,  and  they  proudly  adopted  the  title.  This 
group,  or  party,  did  not,  however,  seek  to  overthrow 
the  Church  of  England  or  to  deny  its  authority. 

It  was  certain  members  of  this  body  of  reformers 
who,  after  struggling  against  the  king  and  the  church, 
fled  to  America  in  1629  and  founded  the  Massachusetts 
Bay  colony  (First  Book,  pp.  59-65).  Even  when  the 
Puritans  sailed  away,  they  were  counted  members 
of  the  Church  of  England ;  and  -such  they  remained 
for  a  while  after  they  reached  America.  In  time,  how- 
ever, they  left  the  English  church  and  formed  little 
groups  of  their  own  —  congregations  —  for  religious 
worship.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  Congregational 
churches  to  be  found  all  over  New  England  and  in 
other  parts  of  the  United  States  to-day. 

Along  with  the  Puritans  there  sprang  up  in  England 
another  Protestant  group  that  utterly  rejected  the 


224  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Church  of  England.  They  flatly  declared  that  it  was 
no  true  church,  that  its  services  were  idolatry,  and 
that  its  bishops  had  no  lawful  power  over  Christians. 
They  asserted  that  the  rightful  form  of  church  was 
described  in  the  New  Testament  as  a  simple  congre- 
gation composed  of  all  those  who  believed  in  Christ. 
A  church,  they  said,  "  is  a  company  or  number  of 
Christians  or  believers  who  by  a  willing  covenant 
made  with  their  God  are  under  the  government  of 
God  and  Christ  and  keep  his  laws  in  one  holy  com- 
munion." Members  of  this  sect  were  called  Separatists, 
because  they  proposed  to  separate  entirely  from  the 
Church  of  England  and  set  up  independent  congrega- 
tions of  their  own.  Of  course,  the  king  did  not  like 
the  Separatists  at  all.  They  were  always  in  danger 
of  punishment.  So  many  of  them  fled  from  the  realm. 
It  was  the  members  of  this  group  that  founded  the 
colony  of  Plymouth  in  1620  (First  Book,  pp.  57-59). 

The  Increase  in  Religious  Sects.  Some  of  those 
who  drifted  away  from  the  Church  of  England  believed 
that  a  certain  form  of  baptism  was  necessary  to  sal- 
vation. John  Bunyan,  the  author  of  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
held  this  view.  So  did  Roger  Williams,  of  Rhode  Island 
(First  Book,  pp.  62-63).  He  is  sometimes  called  the 
founder  of  the  Baptist  churches  in  America.  From 
small  beginnings  sprang  the  Baptist  congregations  of 
the  United  States,  which  now  have  nearly  ten  million 
members. 

One  powerful  body  of  Separatists,  or  independents, 


THE   PROTESTANT  REFORMATION 


225 


was  the  Presbyterians,  who  were  especially  strong 
in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  Ireland.  They  counted 
among  their  great  teachers  John  Calvin  of  Geneva 
and  John  Knox  of  Edinburgh.  Like  the  other  inde- 
pendents, the  Presbyterians  were  oppressed  by  the 
English  government.  Shortly  after  the  English  colo- 


THE  COTTAGE  OF  JOHN  BUNYAN  IN  ENGLAND 


From  an  old  print 


nies  were  founded,  they  therefore  flocked  to  the  New 
World  also.  In  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
inland  sections  of  the  South  they  were  very  numerous. 
They  took  the  lead  in  the  western  movement  toward 
the  Mississippi. 

Another  sect  that  rejected  the  Established  Church 
was   the   Quakers,  or,  as   they  called   themselves,  the 


oHillsboro 
o  Raleigh 
NORTH  CAROLINA 


EUROPEAN  SETTLEMENTS  IN  AMERICA 


THE   PROTESTANT   REFORMATION  227 

Friends.  They  followed  the  teaching  of  George  Fox. 
One  of  their  leaders,  William  Penn,  founded  the  colony 
of  Pennsylvania.  There  the  Friends  were  free  to  wor- 
ship God  according  to  "  the  light  "  which  they  had 
received.  They  granted  this  same  religious  freedom 
to  others. 

The  dissenters  from  the  Established  Church  usually 
combined  with  their  religious  views  a  dislike  for  the 
government  of  England  because  it  tried  to  force  on 
them  the  religion  made  lawful  by  the  parliament. 
So  they  carried  with  them  to  America  political  as  well 
as  religious  ideas.  They  found  it  possible  even  to 
work  with  the  Catholics,  who  had  founded  Maryland, 
in  the  great  War  for  American  Independence  (First 
Book,  pp.  55-56). 

RESULTS  OF  THE  PROTESTANT  REVOLT 
Religious  Wars.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years 
Europe  was  filled  with  religious  wars,  civil  and 
international.  The  Dutch  in  The  Netherlands,  then 
under  the  rule  of  the  Catholic  king  of  Spain,  became 
Protestants.  Soon  afterward,  they  rejected  the  rule 
of  their  sovereign.  In  a  terrible  war  they  won  their 
independence,  which  was  recognized  in  1648. 

In  France,  Protestants  known  as  Huguenots  began 
to  appear  shortly  after  Luther  defied  the  pope,  but  by 
stern  measures  the  government  kept  them  from  becom- 
ing very  powerful.  Still  they  were  numerous  enough 
to  excite  the  alarm  of  the  Catholics.  France  was 


228        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

divided  into  two  parties  and  civil  wars  followed. 
Finally,  in  1598,  the  king  issued  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
which  gave  a  certain  toleration  to  the  Protestants. 
This  Edict  was  in  force  for  nearly  a  hundred  years. 
Then  it  was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  All  Frenchmen 
had  to  be  Catholics  or  run  the  risk  of  punishment. 
Huguenots  were  persecuted.  Thousands  of  them  fled 
to  England  and  Prussia.  Others  came  to  America. 
New  Rochelle,  in  New  York,  was  one  of  the  places 
founded  by  Huguenots.  It  was  named  after  their 
old  home,  Rochelle,  in  France. 

For  a  time  after  Luther's  day  the  Protestant  and 
Catholic  princes  in  Germany  managed  to  live  on  fairly 
good  terms.  Afterwards,  however,  they  began  a 
bloody  strife  known  as  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618- 
48),  which  at  length  involved  France,  Spain,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark  as  well.  This  was  a  terrible  war.  Hun- 
dreds of  German  villages  were  utterly  destroyed ; 
some  cities  lost  half  or  more  of  their  inhabitants ; 
and  the  whole  country  was  left  helpless  and  poverty- 
stricken.  In  the  end  neither  party  was  victorious. 
Neither  of  them  could  master  the  other.  As  a  result, 
toleration  for  all  branches  of  the  Protestant  faith  was 
granted  in  Germany. 

Religious  Persecution.  In  addition  to  open  religious 
wars  there  were  persecutions  within  each  of  the  coun- 
tries where  religious  disputes  appeared.  The  Catholic 
Church  had  always  required  strict  obedience  to  its 
authority.  Long  before  Protestantism  appeared,  it 


THE   PROTESTANT  REFORMATION 


229 


had  turned  heretics  who  would  not  repent  over  to  the 
government  to  be  punished.  This  practice  the  Catho- 
lics continued  in 
those  countries 
where  they  re- 
tained their  power. 
Protestants,  on 
the  other  hand, 
while  they  object- 
ed to  such  cruel 
treatment  for  them- 
selves, often  re- 
sorted to  it  in  their 
own  time  of  tri- 
umph. Lutherhad 
no  more  thought 
of  allowing  every 
man  to  worship 
God  according  to 
his  own  conscience 
than  had  the  pope 
at  Rome.  The  very 
idea  was  hateful 
and  dangerous  in 
the  sight  of  both 
parties  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Catholics  impris- 
oned, banished,  and  burned  Protestants.  In  their 
turn  many  Protestant  sects  treated  Catholics  in  the 
same  way.  They  even  punished  with  the  same  severity 


From  an  old  print 


ENGLISH  JUDGES  CONDEMNING  PROTESTANT 
DISSENTERS  TO  PRISON 


230  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

other  Protestants  who  differed  from  them.  When 
Henry  VIII  in  England  broke  with  the  pope  he  burned 
many  sweet-spirited  and  noble  Catholics,  like  Sir 
Thomas  More,  who  were  unable  to  accept  him  as  the 
head  of  the  Church.  Likewise  he  put  to  death  equally 
sweet-spirited  and  noble  Protestants  who  would  not 
do  his  will  or  who  sought  to  make  changes  in  religion 
which  he  did  not  approve.  So  it  happened  that 
thousands  of  men  and  women,  Catholics  and  Prot- 
estants alike,  were  ready  to  flee  to  America  when  it 
was  opened  for  settlement. 

When  religious  persecution  died  away  in  western 
Europe,  it  was  kept  up  in  eastern  Europe.  The 
Russians  and  Poles  persecuted  the  Jews,  and  the  Turks 
persecuted  the  Christians.  Even  in  our  own  time, 
religious  persecution  goes  on  in  many  regions.  Thus 
for  more  than  three  hundred  years  the  desire  to  escape 
from  religious  oppression  has  been  one  of  the  powerful 
motives  that  sent  emigrants  to  America. 

The  Growth  of  Toleration.  As  we  have  said,  few 
of  the  early  Protestant  sects  believed  that  every  one 
should  have  the  right  to  choose  his  own  religious  faith 
or  to  belong  to  no  church  if  he  so  decided.  With  some 
exceptions  each  sect  was  in  fact  as  eager  to  compel 
every  person  to  accept  its  faith  as  the  Catholic  Church 
had  been  in  the  middle  ages.  The  idea  of  complete 
religious  freedom  seemed  as  distasteful  to  the  early 
Lutherans  and  Puritans  as  it  had  to  the  Catholics. 

Nevertheless,    after    centuries    of    persecution    the 


THE   PROTESTANT  REFORMATION  231 

spirit  of  toleration  gained  ground.  Nobler  ideas  and 
gentler  manners  helped.  People  became  weary  of  the 
turmoil  and  hatred  born  of  persecution.  Then,  as 
the  sects  grew  in  numbers  in  spite  of  persecution,  no 
one  of  them  could  suppress  all  the  others.  Finally, 
as  interest  in  worldly  affairs  increased,  religious  dis- 
putes died  down.  As  if  by  accident  rather  than  by 
design,  the  enlightened  people  of  every  religious  de- 
nomination gave  up  the  idea  of  punishing  those  who 
differed  from  them.  They  finally  adopted  the  modern 
notion  that  "  every  one  has  a  right  to  worship  God 
according  to  the  dictates  of  his  conscience." 

Though  America  did  not  at  first  escape  entirely  from 
the  Old  World  heritage  of  religious  intolerance,  it  did 
lead  all  mankind  toward  the  ideal  of  religious  freedom. 
The  first  amendment  to  our  Constitution  provided  that 
Congress  should  make  no  law  "  respecting  an  estab- 
lishment of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof."  This  clause,  adopted  in  1791,  was  a  land- 
mark in  the  long  struggle  for  religious  toleration. 

Translations  of  the  Bible.  The  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion brought  with  it  wars  and  persecutions,  but  it 
also  aroused  a  new  interest  in  reading  the  Bible  and 
other  religious  books.  The  Old  Testament  had  been 
written  originally  in  Hebrew  and  the  New  in  Greek 
-  both  languages  which  were  utterly  foreign  to  the 
peoples  of  western  Europe.  To  overcome  this  diffi- 
culty, a  translation  of  the  Bible  had  been  made  into 
Latin  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  This 


232  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

edition,  approved  by  the  Catholic  Church,  was  called 
the  Vulgate,  because  it  was  in  the  tongue  of  the  multi- 
tude—  vulgus  meaning  in  Latin  "  the  people."  From 
time  to  time  parts  of  the  Bible  had  also  been  translated 
into  German,  English,  French,  and  other  languages. 
For  example,  many  long  passages  had  been  done  into 
Anglo-Saxon  in  the  reign  of  Alfred  the  Great,  and  the 
whole  Bible  was  translated  about  1383  by  the  English 
reformer,  John  Wyclif. 

The  revival  of  learning  (p.  147),  which  gave  stu- 
dents a  special  interest  in  the  Greek  language,  led 
them  to  turn  with  new  zeal  to  the  life  of  Christ.  It 
was  to  be  found  in  the  New  Testament,  written  in  Greek 
by  those  who  knew  him  and  had  labored  and  suffered 
with  him.  Speaking  of  the  Gospels,  Erasmus,  a  leader 
of  the  "New  Learning,"  wrote:  "  Were  we  to  have 
seen  him  with  our  own  eyes,  we  should  not  have  so 
intimate  a  knowledge  as  they  give  us  of  Christ,  speaking, 
healing,  dying,  rising  again,  as  it  were  in  our  very 
presence."  Then,  in  a  burst  of  enthusiasm,  he  ex- 
claimed :  "  I  wish  that  they  were  translated  into  all 
languages,  so  as  to  be  read  and  understood  not  only  by 
Scots  and  Irishmen  but  even  by  Saracens  and  Turks. 
I  long  for  the  day  when  the  husbandman  shall  sing 
portions  of  them  as  he  follows  the  plow,  when  the 
weaver  shall  hum  them  to  the  tune  of  his  shuttle,  when 
the  traveler  shall  while  away  with  their  stories  the  weari- 
ness of  the  journey."  The  wish  was  fulfilled,  but  not 
always  by  translators  belonging  to  the  Catholic  Church. 


THE    PROTESTANT    REFORMATION  233 

The  great  translations  into  German  and  English 
were  made  by  Protestants,  who  naturally  enough  gave 
a  Protestant  meaning,  wherever  possible,  to  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  words.  Martin  Luther,  as  we  have  seen, 
prepared  for  his  followers  a  German  Bible  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  common  people.  About  the  same  time 
several  versions  appeared  in  English.  As  some  con- 
fusion arose  from  the  various  versions  of  the  original 
tongues,  an  official  English  translation,  under  the  di- 
rection of  King  James  I,  was  published  in  1611.  This 
was  the  famous  King  James  or  Authorized  version. 
For  nearly  three  hundred  years  it  was  the  accepted 
English  edition  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  was  used 
by  all  English  Protestant  denominations.  The  Roman 
Catholic  clergy  also  brought  out  an  official  Catholic 
version  in  English  known  as  the  Douay  Bible. 

It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  influence  of  the 
King  James  version  of  the  Bible  on  English  life  and 
thought.  The  masses,  who  had  known,  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  only  through  the  teachings  of  priests, 
could  now  read  for  themselves.  For  a  long  time  the 
Bible  was  almost  the  only  book  which  the  common 
people  had.  It  was  at  once  their  guide  to  ancient 
history,  their  collection  of  marvelous  stories,  their 
record  of  human  trials  and  sufferings.  In  it  they 
found  words  of  thanksgiving  for  joyous  occasions  and 
words  of  solace  in  hours  of  death  and  sorrow. 

That  was  not  all.  The  very  language  of  the  English 
edition  made  a  deep  impress  upon  all  English  literature. 


234  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

The  translators  chose  the  clear  and  simple  words  of 
everyday  usage,  and  so  they  set  a  model  of  style  for 
English  writers  of  all  times.  Leaders  in  American 
affairs  as  far  apart  in  centuries  as  William  Penn  and 
Abraham  Lincoln  found  inspiration  in  the  noble 
thoughts  and  clear  language  of  the  Bible.  When 
Lincoln  opened  his  Gettysburg  address  with  "  Four 
score  and  seven  years  ago,"  he  used  the  old  and 
simple  style  of  the  Bible. 

The  Spread  of  Education.  The  Bible  was  also  a 
book  of  education.  Thousands  of  humble  folk,  who 
had  never  been  in  school  a  day,  learned  to  read  in  order 
that  they  might  study  it  for  themselves.  An  English 
bishop  lamented  that  "  cobblers,  tailors,  felt-makers 
and  such-like  trash  "  were  taking  it  upon  themselves 
to  study  the  Bible  and  teach  its  message  to  their  neigh- 
bors. 

Whoever  has  the  power  to  read  has  open  before  him 
a  gateway  to.  knowledge  which  is  closed  to  illiterate 
persons.  Those  who  learned  their  letters  by  poring 
over  the  Bible  were  later  able  to  read  the  plays  of 
the  great  Shakespeare,  as  well  as  books  and  pamphlets 
on  politics  and  other  subjects.  By  seeking  knowledge 
in  religious  matters,  they  learned  about  "  the  mysteries  " 
of  kings  and  governments.  Thus  the  translations  of 
the  Bible  helped  to  prepare  the  people  to  govern  them- 
selves. 

The  Reformation  also  helped  greatly  in  the  spread 
of  schools  for  the  masses.  In  the  middle  ages,  the 


THE    PROTESTANT    REFORMATION  235 

idea  of  giving  every  one  an  education  was  not  looked 
upon  as  practicable  or  desirable.  The  schools  were  few 
and  colleges  were  mainly  for  the  training  of  men  who 
wished  to  enter  the  priesthood.  As  the  various  Prot- 
estant congregations  sprang  up,  however,  the  members 
of  each  were  careful  to  bring  up  their  children  in  their 
own  faith.  Schools  were  founded  to  teach  children  to 
read  the  Bible  and  to  instruct  them  in  religious  doc- 
trines. Thus  the  ability  to  read  became  more  wide- 
spread than  ever  before  in  human  history.  Puritans, 
Presbyterians,  Baptists,  and  other  denominations,  in- 
cluding the  Catholics,  all  established  schools  in  which 
their  religious  views  were  taught.  Every  college 
founded  in  America  in  colonial  times,  except  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  was  established  by  a  religious 
denomination  to  train  young  men  in  its  faith  and  serv- 
ices. The  natural  sciences,  like  botany,  chemistry, 
and  physiology,  received  no  more  attention  in  the  first 
Protestant  schools  than  they  had  in  the  universities  of 
the  middle  ages. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

I.  I.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  "Protestant"  as  ap- 
plied to  the  Protestant  churches  ?  2.  For  how  long  a  time  was 
the  Catholic  Church  supreme  in  western  Europe  ?  (Recall  the 
time  of  Constantine  the  Great  and  consider  1517  as  marking  the 
beginning  of  the  Protestant  Reformation.)  How  does  this  com- 
pare with  the  period  from  the  beginning  of  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion to  the  present  time  ?  3.  Why  are  the  names  of  John  Wyclif 
and  John  Huss  remembered  ?  4.  One  complaint  against  the 


£36        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

Catholic  Church  was  that  its  property  was  free  from  taxation ; 
is  church  property  free  from  taxation  to-day?  5.  How  did  the 
views  of  Erasmus  differ  from  those  of  Wyclif  and  Huss  ?  6.  Can 
you  think  of  any  reasons  that  will  explain  why  the  revolt  against 
the  Church  came  first  from  the  clergy  rather  than  from  laymen  ? 
7.  How  did  Luther's  views  differ  from  those  of  Erasmus  ?  Why 
is  Luther  rather  than  Wyclif  or  Huss  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  Protestant  churches  ? 

II.  i.    What    were    the    important     differences    between    the 
Protestant  Reformation  in  Germany  and  in  England  ?       2.    What 
is  meant  by  an  "Established   Church"?      In  what  ways  did   the 
Established  Church  of   England    resemble  the  Catholic  Church  ? 
How  did  it  differ  ?     How  did  it  differ  from  the  Lutheran  Church  ? 
In  America  to-day,  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  most  closely 
resembles  the  Established  Church  of  England.     If  there  is  such 
a  church  in  your  community  perhaps  you  can  find  out  some  of 
the   ways   in   which   it   differs    from   other   Protestant  churches ; 
for  example,  in  the  conduct  of  its  services,  the  construction  of 
the  church  building,  the  dress  of  the  clergy.       3.    How  did  the 
Puritans   and    the    Separatists    resemble  each  other  ?      In  what 
important  respects  did  they  differ  ?       4.    In  what  ways  did  the 
Baptists,  the  Presbyterians,  and   the  Quakers  differ?       5.    Make 
a  list  of  the  religious  sects  represented  in  your  community.     (Prob- 
ably some  of  them  are  not  mentioned  in  this  chapter.)     If  possible, 
find  out  something  about  the  origin  of  these  various  sects. 

III.  i.    Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  to  explain  why  the 
multiplication  of  religious  sects  gave  rise  to  so  many  wars  during 
the   period   that  we   are   studying.       2.    What   is   the   difference 
between  a  "civil"  war  and  an  "international"  war?     Which  of 
the  three  wars  mentioned  in  the  text  were  civil,  and  which  were 
international?       3.    What   is    meant   by   "religious    toleration"? 
4.    In  what  important  ways  did  intolerance  and  persecution  in 
Europe   influence  our  country  ?     What  American   colonies   were 
founded  by  people  who  sought  religious   freedom?       5.    People 


THE    PROTESTANT    REFORMATION 


237 


naturally  regard  and  cherish  the  idea  that  they  have  fought  for 
and  suffered  for;  perhaps  you  can  give  some  of  the  reasons  that 
explain  why  the  people  of  western  Europe  and  of  North  America 
now  believe  so  firmly  in  religious  toleration.  You  might  well 
think  of  this  as  an  ideal  for  which  a  great  price  has  been  paid. 
What  was  the  price  ?  6.  Another  great  ideal  had  its  birth  in 
the  troubled  times  which  we  are  studying;  namely,  the  ideal 
of  "universal"  education  —  that  is,  the  education  of  all  of  the 
people  in  at  least  the  rudiments  of  learning.  In  what  way  did 
the  Protestant  Reformation  make  a  universal  knowledge  of  read- 
ing important?  In  what  other  ways  did  the  multiplication  of 
religious  sects  promote  education  ? 


ERA  op  THE  REFORMATION 


238        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

BEST  —  Merry  England. 

CREIGHTON,   LOUISE  —  Stories  from   English  History,   xxx-xxxiii, 

xxxviii ;    Longmans. 

DALE  —  Landmarks  of  British  History,  viii. 
O'NEILL  —  The  Story  of  the  World,  xxxi. 
VAN  LOON  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition},  xliv. 
WARREN  —  Stories  from  English  History,  xvii. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  GREAT  POLITICAL  REVOLUTION    IN  ENGLAND 

THE  Protestant  Reformation,  at  first,  left  unchecked 
the  power  of  kings,  landlords,  and  clergy.  Wherever 
the  Catholic  Church  was  overthrown,  another  church 
was  set  up  in  its  stead  and  the  people  at  large  had 
to  accept  the  new  faith  as  they  had  the  old.  In 
this  change,  Protestant  kings  really  got  more  power 
for  a  time  because  they  were  enriched  by  the  property 
they  took  from  the  Catholic  Church.  But  their  sudden 
gain  was  destined  to  be  short-lived  in  England.  The 
Protestant  revolt  there  was  followed  in  the  next  cen- 
tury by  a  political  revolt  against  the  king  himself. 
This  was  the  first  of  the  great  democratic  revolutions 
that  have  swept  through  the  world  during  the  past 
three  hundred  years. 

THE  OLD  POLITICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CLASSES  IN  ENGLAND 

The  King  and  the  Established  Church.  The  acts  of 
James  I  helped  to  start  the  English  political  revolution. 
When  he  was  crowned  king  of  England  in  1603,  he  found 
himself  in  a  place  of  great  power.  He  could  appoint  all 
the  officers  high  and  low  without  the  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment. He  alone  could  permit  men  to  form  companies 

239 


240 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


GREAT   POLITICAL   REVOLUTION   IN   ENGLAND      241 

to  explore,  colonize,  or  trade  beyond  the  seas.  All  land 
which  was  discovered  belonged  to  him,  and  he  could 
grant  it  to  individuals  or  companies  at  his  pleasure. 
He  could  issue  royal  orders  which  were  as  binding  on 
his  subjects  as  the  laws  of  Parliament. 

The  Church  of  England  added  to  his  strength.  All 
Englishmen,  as  we  have  seen,  had  to  be  members  of 
it  and  obey  .its  commands.  The  king  appointed  the 
archbishops  and  bishops,  who  governed  the  Church 
and  watched  over  the  clergy  of  lower  rank.  Every- 
where the  Church  taught  that  obedience  to  the  king 
was  obedience  to  the  will  of  God. 

The  Nobility.  The  power  of  the  king  was  also  in- 
creased by  the  help  he  had  from  the  nobles.  They  were 
few  in  number  and  no  common  man  could  become 
a  noble  unless  the  king  raised  him  to  that  rank  and 
gave  him  a  title.  Much  of  the  land  of  England,  how- 
ever, was  owned  by  these  great  lords  —  dukes,  earls,  and 
barons.  On  their  lands  they  were  very  powerful, 
although  they  could  no  longer  defy  the  king  as  their 
ancestors  had  done  (p.  177).  They  were  not  independ- 
ent. They  were  courtiers.  They  held  high  offices 
under  the  king  and  served  him  in  many  ways  in  war 
and  peace. 

The  Country  Gentlemen  and  the  Merchants.  Below 
the  nobility  in  rank  were  the  large  landowners  who  did 
not  possess  noble  title.  They  were  usually  called  "  the 
country  gentry."  They  had  large  estates,  tilled  by  peas- 
ants, and  lived  in  handsome  manor  houses.  They 


242 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


often  served  as  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
there  boldly  asserted  that  the  king  could  not  tax 
them  without  their  consent.  They  were  not  often  seen 
at  the  royal  court  and  received  few  favors  from  the 
crown.  They  were  proud  and  independent  in  spirit. 
It  was  they  who  led  in  all  efforts  to  curb  the  power  of 
the  king.  From  this  class  came  men  like  Cromwell  and 


From  an  old,  print 


THE  MANOR  HOUSE  ON  AN  ENGLISH  ESTATE 


Hampden,  who,  in  the  days  of  revolution,  defied  the 
king.  From  this  class  also  came  men  like  John  Win- 
throp  and  John  Endicott,  who  migrated  to  the  New 
World  and  made  the  beginnings  of  a  new  nation  there. 
Even  more  independent  in  spirit  were  the  English 
merchants.  They  grew  steadily  in  numbers  as  the 


GREAT   POLITICAL   REVOLUTION   IN  ENGLAND      243 

trade  of  England  multiplied.  They  did  not  own  vast 
landed  estates.  Their  wealth  was  in  shops,  ware- 
houses, and  ships.  Their  ranks  were  not  closed  to  out- 
siders, for  any  successful  business  man  could  secure  a 
place  among  them.  The  seats  of  the  merchants  were  in 
the  towns  like  London,  Bristol,  Plymouth,  and  Man- 
chester. Representatives  of  the  towns  in  Parliament 
were  usually  merchants  or  neighboring  landed  gentry. 

These  two  classes,  welded  together,  led  in  the  rev- 
olution that  overthrew  the  king  in  1649.  In  fact, 
they  made  themselves  the  ruling  classes  of  England 
before  the  end  of  the  century. 

The  Other  Ranks.  Among  the  masses  there  were 
three  distinct  groups.  There  were,  first,  the  yeomen, 
who  were  the  free  and  proud  owners  of  small  farms. 
Sometimes  they  worked  with  their  own  hands  at 
the  plow  and  at  threshing. 

The  second  and  most  numerous  group  was  composed 
of  the  agricultural  laborers.  They  were  descendants 
of  the  former  serfs.  Serfdom  itself  had  disappeared 
in  England,  and  the  former  bondmen  had  become  land- 
less men  who  worked  for  wages  on  the  great  estates. 
They  were  usually  poor  and  wretched,  and  just  at  this 
time  their  lot  was  becoming  harder.  The  landlords 
found  it  more  profitable  to  grow  wool  than  to  raise  grain, 
and  turned  their  fields  into  pastures.  Thousands  of 
acres  of  land  were  withdrawn  from  cultivation  ;  laborers 
and  their  families,  therefore,  had  to  leave  the  soil  for 
the  poorhouse  or  for  a  life  of  semistarvation  in  the 


244  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

towns.  The  writings  of  this  time  are  burdened  with 
complaints  about  the  "  surplus  of  people."  Sending 
people  to  America  was  therefore  looked  upon  as  a  way 
of  getting  rid  of  the  surplus  population. 

It  was  from  the  yeoman  stock  and  the  class  of  agri- 
cultural laborers  that  most  of  the  immigrants  to 
America  were  first  drawn. 

More  fortunate  than  the  agricultural  laborers  were 
the  artisans,  the  skilled  workmen  of  the  towns.  English 
trade  grew  by  leaps  and  bounds  after  the  discovery 
of  the  water  routes  to  India  and  the  New  World. 
English  cloth  and  cutlery  were  famous  in  Russia  and 
India  for  their  quality  and  finish.  English  weavers, 
dyers,  cutlers,  potters,  and  other  skilled  workmen 
supplied  the  goods  which  were  exchanged  for  spices, 
tea,  sugar,  and  the  commodities  of  the  East  and  West. 
The  artisans,  like  the  merchants,  were  often  inde- 
pendent in  spirit.  Their  numbers  increased  as  foreign 
trade  grew.  They  made  the  articles  which  the  mer- 
chants carried  to  distant  lands.  Anything  that  helped 
trade  helped  them.  Anything  that  interfered  with 
trade  injured  them.  Naturally  they  took  the  side 
of  the  merchants,  who  wanted  the  king  to  let  them 
alone.  Among  the  officers  in  the  revolutionary  army 
which  overthrew  King  Charles  I  there  were  tailors, 
brewers,  linen  drapers,  weavers,  and  silk  merchants. 
Since  the  artisans  usually  had  little  difficulty  in  finding 
employment  in  England,  they  did  not  at  first  take 
kindly  to  migration  to  America. 


GREAT   POLITICAL  REVOLUTION  IN  ENGLAND     245 

A  CENTURY  OF  REVOLUTION 

The    Arbitrary    Conduct   of    Kings  —  Divine    Right. 

The  English  people  in  general  seem  to  have  been 
fairly  well  contented  when  James  I  came  to  the  throne 
in  1603.  If  he  had  been  moderate  in  conduct,  mild  in 
speech,  and  willing  to  make  terms  with  the  people, 
there  doubtless  would  have  been  little  trouble  in  Eng- 
land. But  James  and  his  son,  Charles  I,  whose 
combined  reigns  lasted  from  1603  to  1649,  were  poorly 
fitted  to  deal  with  a  nation  that  had  any  pride. 

Both  of  them  taught  and  practiced  the  doctrine  of 
divine  right  -  -  that  kings  had  power  from  God  and 
could  do  no  wrong.  James  I  was  especially  haughty 
in  talking  about  his  own  "  majesty."  "  The  state  of 
monarchy,"  he  informed  Parliament,  "  is  the  suprem- 
est  thing  on  earth,  for  kings  are  not  only  God's  lieu- 
tenants upon  earth  and  sit  upon  God's  throne,  but 
even  by  God  himself  they  are  called  Gods."  That 
was  not  enough  for  him.  He  added  :  "  As  to  dispute 
what  God  may  do  is  blasphemy,  so  it  is  sedition  in 
subjects  to  dispute  what  a  king  may  do  in  the  height 
of  his  power."  No  one  could  teach,  preach,  or  publish 
a  book  without  a  license  from  royal  officers,  and 
anyone  who  questioned  the  king's  rights  and  claims 
was  liable  to  severe  punishment. 

In  addition  to  teaching  the  doctrine  of  divine  right, 
James  and  Charles  both  treated  their  subjects  haughtily 
and  harshly.  They  levied  taxes  without  the  consent 


246  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

of  Parliament.  They  compelled  their  wealthy  subjects 
to  lend  them  money.  They  imprisoned  men  like  John 
Hampden  who  would  not  pay  taxes  laid  by  royal  order. 
They  encouraged  the  Church  of  England  to  hunt  down 
and  turn  over  for  punishment  those  who  refused  to 


From  an  old  print 
ONE  OF  KING  CHARLES  I's  OFFICERS,  CONDEMNED  BY  PARLIAMENT, 

ON    THE    WAY  TO  THE    SCAFFOLD 

obey  its  commands.  They  dismissed  judges  who 
failed  to  carry  out  their  decrees.  If  Parliament  com- 
plained, the  members  were  sent  home. 

The  House  of  Commons  Opposes  the  King.     Leader- 
ship in  opposing  the  king  fell  to  the  House  of  Commons. 


GREAT   POLITICAL   REVOLUTION   IN   ENGLAND      247 

In  that  body  the  country  gentlemen  and  the  merchants 
were  masters,  and  to  them  taxation  without  their  con- 
sent was  especially  hateful.  They  firmly  but  respect- 
fully informed  the  king  that  they  would  not  grant  him 
large  sums  of  money  while  he  treated  them  as  if 
they  had  no  rights.  Since  they  held  the  purse  strings, 
they  compelled  him,  in  1628,  to  approve  the  Petition 
of  Right  —  a  document  often  placed  with  Magna  Carta 
(p.  177)  among  the  great  landmarks  of  English  history. 

In  the  Petition  of  Right,  three  important  principles 
were  laid  down  :  (i)  no  one  should  be  imprisoned  with- 
out a  regular  trial ;  (2)  a  royal  decree  setting  up  the 
rule  of  army  officers  should  be  revoked  ;  and  (3)  taxes, 
loans,  and  gifts  collected  without  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment were  unlawful. 

King  Charles  made  these  promises  only  to  break 
them.  He  then  ruled  for  eleven  years  without  calling 
Parliament  together.  When  at  length  he  needed  money 
and  summoned  Parliament,  in  1640,  he  found  it  in  an 
angry  mood.  It  had  two  of  the  king's  closest  advisers 
put  to  death  ;  it  set  free  the  victims  of  the  king's  anger 
who  were  in  prison ;  it  abolished  two  of  the  high 
courts  that  had  helped  the  king  to  oppress  his  subjects. 
Finally  Parliament  demanded  control  over  the  army, 
which  the  king  claimed  as  his  own. 

Civil  War. —  Oliver  Cromwell.  Charles,  angry  and 
frightened,  refused  to  give  up  his  power  over  his  soldiers. 
He  knew  that,  if  he  lost  the  army,  he  would  be  help- 
less. So  he  decided  to  fight  for  his  rights  and  raised 


248 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


the  royal  battle  flag  in  1642.     The  northwestern  part 
of  his  kingdom  came  to  his  aid  ;    that  is,  the  old  and 


feudal   part.     Against   him   were   the   more   populous 
counties  and  the  thriving  towns. 


GREAT  POLITICAL  REVOLUTION  IN  ENGLAND     249 

Under  the  leadership  of  a  stern  warrior,  Oliver  Crom- 
well, the  revolutionary  army  overcame  the  king's  troops 
in  a  civil  war.  King  Charles  was  taken  prisoner, 
tried,  and  executed.  A  Commonwealth,  or  Republic, 
was  then  proclaimed  in  England. 

The  Religious  Revolt.  United  with  the  revolt 
against  the  king  was  another  revolt  against  the 
Church.  That,  too,  came  gradually.  When  James 
ascended  the  throne,  there  was  already  in  England 
a  small  party  of  reformers  who  wanted  to  make  minor 
changes  in  the  church  services.  As  we  have  seen 
(p.  223)  they  were  known  as  Puritans.  They  handed 
James  a  respectful  petition  on  reform,  but  he  scorn- 
fully laughed  at  them.  "  If  this  be  all  your  party 
hath  to  say,"  he  shouted  at  the  spokesmen  of  the 
Puritans,  "  I  will  make  them  conform  themselves  or 
else  harry  them  out  of  the  land." 

By  this  sharp  speech,  says  the  English  historian 
Gardner,  James  "  sealed  his  own  fate  and  that  of  Eng- 
land forever."  And  it  might  be  added,  "  the  fate  of 
New  England  as  well,"  for  the  people  whom  he  "  har- 
ried "  out  of  the  land  went  across  the  sea  to  seek  liberty 
of  worship  for  themselves. 

The  Puritans,  though  surprised  at  the  king's  curt 
refusal  to  listen,  kept  on  demanding  reforms.  They 
were  joined  in  their  attacks  on  the  Established  Church 
by  another  group --the  Separatists  or  Independ- 
ents (p.  223).  The  Puritans  wanted  to  make  minor 
changes  in  the  Church ;  the  Separatists  rejected  that 


250  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

Church  entirely.  Though  they  differed  in  their  views, 
Puritans  and  Independents  united  in  opposing  the 
control  exercised  over  them  by  the  king  and  Church. 
They  were  both  persecuted  and  punished.  More  than 
one  man  had  his  ears  cut  off  and  his  cheeks  branded 
with  hot  irons  for  attacking  the  Church.  Men  who 
were  imprisoned  for  refusing  to  pay  illegal  taxes  found 
as  their  companions  in  jail  men  who  held  unlawful 
religious  opinions.  So  religion  and  politics  were  com- 
bined. Thus  the  revolt  against  the  king  became  a 
religious  revolt.  When  the  monarchy  was  pulled  down 
in  1649,  the  power  of  the  Church  was  broken. 

The  Dictatorship  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  After  the 
monarchy  and  the  Church  were  overturned,  the  revo- 
lutionists had  to  face  the  difficult  task  of  creating 
a  form  of  government  for  themselves.  Then  their 
troubles  began  in  earnest.  Before  long,  they  were  di- 
vided among  themselves  and  began  to  quarrel  one  with 
another.  Some  wanted  only  a  few  changes  in  the  Eng- 
lish form  of  government.  Others  wanted  many  changes. 

In  the  end,  the  great  soldier  who  had  led  the  revolu- 
tion, Oliver  Cromwell,  came  to  the  top  as  dictator 
He  ruled  England  with  an  iron  hand  ;  so  there  was  no 
liberty,  after  all.  He  punished  those  who  would  not 
obey  him,  collected  taxes  at  will,  and  governed  in  a  ruth- 
less fashion.  While  he  lived,  he  kept  the  government 
going.  After  his  death,  in  1658,  his  poor,  weak  son  was 
unable  to  control  England.  Two  years  later  the  elder 
son  of  Charles  I  was  called  to  the  throne  as  Charles  II. 


GREAT    POLITICAL    REVOLUTION    IN    ENGLAND    251 


252 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


The  Chastened  Monarch.  The  crowning  of  Charles  II 
could  not  undo  the  work  of  Cromwell  and  the  revolu- 
tion. The  Church  of  England  was  "  established  " 
again.  The  bones  of  Cromwell  were  dug  up  and  hanged 
in  chains,  but  the  spirit  of  revolt  was  still  abroad  in 


From  an  old  print 

KING  CHARLES  II  GREETED  BY  His   SUBJECTS  ON  BEING 
CALLED  TO  THE  THRONE 

the  land.  Many  of  the  men  who  had  helped  to  put 
Charles  I  to  death  were  executed,  but  the  methods  of 
James  I  and  Charles  I  would  never  be  tolerated  again 
in  England. 

Charles   II  was  lazy  and  loved   pleasure.      He  was 


GREAT    POLITICAL    REVOLUTION    IN    ENGLAND     253 

careful  not  to  walk  in  the  footsteps  of  his  father 
and  grandfather.  He  said  that  he  wanted  to  keep  his 
crown  on  his  head  and  his  head  on  his  shoulders. 
He  succeeded.  For  twenty-five  years  he  reigned,  and 
then  died  peacefully  in  his  bed. 

James  II  and  the  Second  Revolution.  James  II, 
Charles'  brother  and  successor,  was  a  different  sort  of 
man.  He  was  a  sincere  Catholic  and  earnestly  strove 
to  bring  England  back  to  the  old  faith.  At  the  same 
time,  he  was  as  harsh  in  manner  as  his  father, 
Charles  I.  He  laid  taxes,  arrested  his  subjects,  and 
set  aside  laws  as  if  he  were  a  czar  rather  than  a  king 
under  the  control  of  Parliament.  After  three  years 
of  his  rule,  his  -discontented  subjects  rose  in  their 
wrath  and  expelled  him.  To  save  his  neck,  he  fled 
from  England  in  1688.  Parliament  called  to  the  throne 
his  niece,  Mary,  and  her  husband,  William,  the  Prince 
of  Orange  in  Holland. 

THE  RESULTS  OF  THE  REVOLUTIONS 
The  Supremacy  of  Parliament.  Before  giving  the 
crown  to  William  and  Mary,  Parliament  passed  a 
law,  known  as  the  Bill  of  Rights,  which  set  forth  the 
chief  results  of  the  revolution.  This  bill  is  as  famous 
in  English  history  as  the  Great  Charter  (p.  177)  and 
the  Petition  of  Right  (p.  247). 

The  Bill  of  Rights  first  set  forth  the  evil  deeds  of 
James  II.  Then  it  declared  that  the  king  could  not 
set  aside  the  laws,  levy  taxes,  or  keep  a  standing  army 


254  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

in  time  of  peace  without  the  consent  of  Parliament. 
The  Bill  also  declared  certain  rights  of  persons.  It 
proclaimed  freedom  of  speech  for  members  of  Parlia- 
ment, the  right  of  the  people  to  petition  the  king,  and  the 
right  of  Protestant  subjects  to  bear  arms.  It  forbade 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  and  excessive  fines. 
Some  of  the  very  language  of  this  Bill  of  Rights  is 
to  be  found  in  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
especially  in  the  amendments. 

The  great  document  was  read  by  an  agent  of  Parlia- 
ment to  William  and  Mary,  and  they  agreed  to  abide 
by  it.  Thus  Parliament  became  supreme  in  England. 
"  We  accept  what  you  have  offered  us,"  said  William. 
Divine  right  was  dead  in  England.  Shortly  afterwards, 
an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed  granting  religious 
toleration  to  all  except  Catholics  and  Unitarians. 
Henceforward  Protestants  could  hold  religious  meet- 
ings and  worship  God  according  to  their  consciences. 
Many  years  were  to  pass,  however,  before  religious 
freedom  was  granted  to  all. 

The  English  Constitution.  It  was  by  such  laws  as 
Magna  Carta  and  the  Bill  of  Rights  that  the  English 
system  of  government  was  fixed.  The  English  people 
never  held  a  national  convention  to  draft  a  complete 
constitution.  A  great  deal  of  their  plan  of  government 
is  not  written  down  at  all.  It  is  unwritten,  that 
is,  consists  of  customs  that  have  grown  up  through 
the  years.  That  part  which  is  written  consists  of  impor- 
tant laws  like  the  Bill  of  Rights. 


GREAT    POLITICAL    REVOLUTION    IN    ENGLAND     255 

The  Meaning  of  the  Revolutions  for  America.  Dur- 
ing this  long  and  bitter  contest  in  England  every 
English  colony  in  America,  except  Georgia,  was  founded 
(First  Book,  pp.  51-78).  The  religious  disputes  before 
and  during  the  first  revolution  drove  many  Puri- 
tans and  Separatists  to  New  England.  On  the  other 
hand,  while  the  Puritan  party  was  supreme  under 
Cromwell,  many  of  the  king's  friends,  Cavaliers  as 
they  were  called,  were  forced  to  flee  to  Virginia  for 
safety.  Henceforward,  England's  interest  was  to  be 
mainly  colonial  and  commercial,  and  her  activities 
were  to  spread  to  every  part  of  the  world. 

The  revolt  against  the  harsh  power  of  the  king  in 
England  also  meant  more  freedom  for  the  American 
colonies  to  grow  up  in  their  own  way  and  to  manage 
their  own  affairs.  James  II  had  attempted  to  subdue 
the  American  colonies  as  well  as  his  subjects  at  home. 
The  Americans  therefore  rejoiced  when  they  heard 
of  his  overthrow.  With  James  II  passed  away  the 
last  arbitrary  English  king  for  many  a  year.  Seventy 
years,  in  fact,  were  to  pass  before  another  English  ruler 
undertook  to  meddle  personally  with  American  affairs. 

After  William  and  Mary  were  dead,  the  crown 
passed  to  Mary's  sister,  Anne.  Then  it  went  to  George 

I,  a  great-grandson  of  James  I,  a  German  prince  who 
did  not  even  know  the  English  language  and   to  the 
end  cared  only  for  his  German  home.     His  son,  George 

II,  learned  to  speak  English  with  an  accent,  but  never 
undertook  to   rule   harshly  in   England.     He  married 


256        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

a  German  wife,  and  preferred  to  live  in  his  German 
palace.  During  the  reigns  of  these  sovereigns,  that 
is,  from  1688  to  1760,  the  English  colonists  in  America 
were  free  to  go  their  own  way  as  far  as  the  king  was 
concerned.  Not  until  George  III  came  to  the  throne, 
in  1760,  was  royal  meddling  in  American  affairs  re- 
newed. 

How  the  Ideas  of  American  Independence  Took  Form. 
The  English  revolution  of  1688  not  only  weakened 
the  power  of  the  king  at  home ;  it  proclaimed  ideas  of 
human  rights  which  were  many  years  later  used  by 
Americans  in  their  revolt  against  George  III. 

These  ideas  were  best  set  forth  in  the  works  of  John 
Locke,  a  writer  of  singular  power.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Puritan  gentleman,  a  graduate  of  Oxford  Univer- 
sity and  a  student  of  government.  About  the  time 
that  James  II  was  overthrown,  Locke  published  a 
book  in  which  he  attacked  the  theory  of  divine  right 
and  asserted,  instead,  the  rights  of  the  people.  He 
declared  that  men  were  born  with  a  right  to  freedom 
and  equal  opportunity;  that  the  end  of  government 
was  the  good  of  mankind.  Then  he  went  on  to  say 
that  whenever  any  government  violated  the  life,  liberty, 
and  property  of  the  people,  the  people  had  a  right 
to  abolish  it  and  establish  a  new  one  that  suited  them 
better. 

Here,  in  other  words,  are  the  doctrines  set  forth  in 
the  American  Declaration  of  Independence.  Thomas 
Jefferson,  the  author  of  the  Declaration  (First  Book, 


GREAT    POLITICAL    REVOLUTION    IN    ENGLAND    257 

pp.  132-136),  was  familiar  with  the  writings  of  Locke. 
From  them,  no  doubt,  he  drew  many  of  his  ideas. 
So  the  defense  of  the  English  revolution  of  1688  was 
to  become  the  defense  of  the  American  revolution 
of  1776. 

Europe  Aroused.  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  as 
well  as  in  the  American  colonies,  the  English  revolution 
made  a  great  stir.  Kings  and  princes  were  shocked 
at  the  uprising  of  the  English  people.  It  was  the 
first  disturbance  of  the  kind  since  the  days  of  ancient 
Rome  and  there  was  no  telling  how  it  would  end. 
"  The  news  of  the  king's  death,"  says  the  historian 
Green,  "  was  received  throughout  Europe  with  a  thrill 
of  horror.  The  Czar  of  Russia  drove  the  English 
envoy  from  his  court.  The  ambassador  of  France  was 
withdrawn  on  the  proclamation  of  the  republic.  Hol- 
land took  the  lead  in  open  acts  of  hostility." 

Though  kings  and  princes  were  shocked  at  the 
English  revolution,  the  people  of  Europe  became  inter- 
ested in  English  ideas.  In  a  hundred  years,  the  king, 
nobles,  and  clergy  of  France  were  to  be  overthrown 
just  as  they  had  been  in  England.  All  the  famous 
French  thinkers  who  prepared  the  minds  of  the  French 
people  for  their  uprising  either  studied  in  England 
or  were  familiar  with  English  writings.  The  works 
of  Locke  were  translated  into  French  and  studied  by 
French  popular  leaders.  The  English  ideas  of  (i)  a 
free  press,  (2)  a  limited  monarchy,  (3)  a  supreme 
Parliament  representing  the  nation,  and  (4)  a  moderate 


258  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

religious  toleration  spread  far  and  wide  in  France. 
Just  one  century  after  William  and  Mary  faced  the 
English  Parliament  and  agreed  to  abide  by  its  laws, 
the  French  king,  Louis  XVI,  faced  the  French  nation 
and  learned  that  he  was  no  longer  master  in  his  realm. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.    What   is    the    difference    between    a    religious    revolt   or 
revolution  and  a  political  revolution  ?     Which  of  these  two  kinds 
of  revolution  was  represented  by  the  American  War  for  Inde- 
pendence ?       2.    In  what  ways  did   the  revolt  against  the  Church 
increase  the  power  of  the  kings?       3.    State  the  important  dif- 
ferences among  the  following  ranks  or  classes  in  England  :    the 
king,  the  nobility,  the  landed  gentry,  the  merchants,  the  yeomen, 
the  artisans,  the  farm  laborers.     Which  of  these  classes  would  be 
likely  to  side  with  the  king  in  case  of  a  quarrel,  and  why  ?    Which 
would  be  likely  to  unite  against  the  king  ? 

II.  I.    W7hat  is  meant  by  the  "divine  right"  of  kings?     Try 
tc  imagine  what  life  in  our  country  would  be  like  if  we  had  a  king 
who  believed  in  "divine  right"  and  who  ruled  as  James  I  and 
Charles  I  ruled  England.       2.    Why  did  the  landed  gentry  and 
the  merchants  especially  dislike  to  have  the  king  levy  taxes  as  he 
pleased  ?     Why  would  they  be  likely  to  object  to  this  more  than 
the  yeomen,   the  artisans,   and   the  laborers?       3.    Of  the  three 
important  principles  laid  down  in  the  Petition  of  Right,  which 
one  do  you   consider  the  most  important,  and  why  ?       4.    How 
did  it  happen  that  the  political  revolt  in  England   became  also  a 
religious  revolt?       5.    We  all  agree  that  Americans  should  know 
something   about  their  own   great   heroes   like   Washington   and 
Franklin ;    are  there  any  reasons  why  Americans  should  also  re- 
member the  name  of  Oliver  Cromwell  ?       6.    What  is  meant  by 
a  "dictator"?     Do  you  think  that  a  "dictatorship"  like  that  of 
Oliver  Cromwell  is  ever  justified  ?     Give  reasons  for  your  answer 


GREAT  POLITICAL  REVOLUTION  IN  ENGLAND      259 

III.  I.  What  liberties  did  the  people  of  England  gain  through 
the  Bill  of  Rights  ?  What  important  powers  were  thereafter  lost 
to  the  kings  ?  2.  How  does  the  English  constitution  differ 
from  the  constitution  of  our  country?  3.  How  did  the  English 
Revolution  influence  American  history  ?  4.  In  studying  chap- 
ter ix,  we  found  that  two  great  ideals  grew  up  after  the  Prot- 
estant Reformation,  —  the  ideal  of  religious  toleration  and  the 
ideal  of  universal  education.  In  the  present  chapter,  what  other 
ideals  have  been  seen  to  take  form?  5.  "Freedom  of  speech" 
is  generally  thought  of  as  the  right  to  criticize  the  acts  of  those 
in  positions  of  authority,  especially  in  the  government;  why 
was  this  an  advance  over  the  "divine  right"  of  kings?  Does 
"freedom  of  speech"  mean  that  anyone  can  say  anything  that  he 
pleases  ?  What  might  happen  to  a  man  who  said  something 
untrue  about  another  person  with  the  result  that  this  person's 
reputation  was  injured  ?  Even  to-day  it  is  generally  believed 
that  "freedom  of  speech"  in  time  of  war  must  be  restricted; 
give  reasons  that  justify  this  belief.  6.  Another  ideal  established 
by  the  English  revolution  was  the  one  that  played  so  important 
a  part  in  the  American  War  for  Independence,  —  "Taxation  with- 
out representation  is  tyranny."  Explain  the  meaning  of  this. 
Are  you  "represented"  in  the  bodies  that  levy  taxes  in  this  coun- 
try ?  How?  7.  A  third  ideal  might  be  called  "humaneness 
in  government."  Both  the  Bill  of  Rights  and  our  own  Constitu- 
tion forbid  "cruel  and  unusual  punishments."  What  punish- 
ments mentioned  in  this  chapter  as  having  been  practiced  by  the 
English  kings  could  not  be  inflicted  by  courts  of  law  in  our  coun- 
try to-day?  8.  Still  another  ideal  is  represented  by  the  "right 
of  trial  by  jury."  What  is  a  "jury"?  Why  is  a  trial  by  jury 
likely  to  be  fairer  than  a  trial  by  a  single  judge  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

CREIGHTON  —  Stories  from  English  History,  xxxix-xlii. 
DALE  —  Landmarks  of  British  History,  ix. 


260        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

MARSHALL,  H.  E.  —  Through  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  with  Crom- 
well;   Stokes. 

O'NEILL —  The  Story  of  the  World,  xxxiv. 
VAN  LOON  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  xlv,  li. 
WARREN  —  Stories  from  English  History,  xxvii-xxviii,  xxxii-xl. 


CHAPTER   XI 

THE   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN  NATIONS 

The  Influence    of    Discovery   and  World   Commerce. 

The  age  of  the  Protestant  Reformation  and  the  English 
revolution  was  also  an  age  of  vast  changes  in  the  com- 
merce and  industry  of  Europe  and  in  the  life  of  the 
people.  Huge  fortunes  were  made  out  of  the  trade 
opened  by  Columbus,  da  Gama,  and  Cortes.  As  most 
of  the  profits  went  to  merchants  and  traders,  the  busi- 
ness classes  grew  in  power.  At  length  they  more 
than  rivaled  in  wealth  and  numbers  the  nobles  and  the 
clergy.  Their  profits,  added  to  the  gold  and  silver 
drawn  from  the  mines  of  the  New  World,  furnished 
the  capital  for  business  enterprises  on  a  huge  scale. 

The  amount  of  money  in  the  hands  of  the  people 
was  larger  than  ever  before.  Many  a  serf,  by  the  sale 
of  farm  produce,  was  able  to  pay  his  landlord  in  cash 
and  thus  became  a  renter  instead  of  a  bondman.  Some 
of  the  serfs,  by  careful  saving,  managed  to  buy  their 
plots  of  land  outright.  So  free  peasants  began  to  take 
the  place  of  people  bound  to  the  soil.  At  the  same  time, 
the  money  in  circulation  helped  business  in  the  towns. 
The  demand  for  manufactured  goods  increased,  and 

so  did  the  number  of  artisans.     Then  began  the  drift 

261 


262 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


of  the  people  to  the  towns  in  search  of  employment  — 
a  drift  that  has  kept  up  steadily  until  our  own  day. 

Commerce,  while  making  these  changes  within  the 
nations,  also  became  a  powerful  cause  of  wars  among 
them.  Princes  had  long  fought  over  territory  in 


From  an  old  print 
A  SUGAR  MILL  IN  THE  TROPICS  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

Europe.  Now  whole  nations  were  to  wage  wars  for 
territory  and  trade  in  all  parts  of  the  world  for  tea, 
sugar,  coffee,  and  spices. 

The  chief  rivals  in  this  new  form  of  warfare  were 
five  in  number,     (i)  The  Portuguese.     As  we  have  seen. 


CHIEF  LUROPEAN  RIVALS 
263 


264  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

they  led  in  the  work  of  exploration.  They  opened  the 
waterway  to  India  and  built  up  a  rich  trade  there. 
They  also  founded  the  colony  of  Brazil  in  the  New 
World.  Portugal,  however,  lost  her  lead  in  1580  when 
she  was  conquered  by  Spain.  (2)  The  Spaniards. 
Through  the  exploits  of  her  own  seamen,  Spain  claimed 
nearly  all  of  the  New  World  and  enjoyed  most  of 
the  East  Indian  trade.  By  conquering  Portugal, 
her  power  and  possessions  were  greatly  increased. 
(3)  The  Dutch.  The  people  of  The  United  Nether- 
lands were  once  subjects  of  the  king  of  Spain  ;  but,  as 
we  have  said,  they  finally  revolted  and  became  the 
rivals  of  Spain  in  trade.  They  sent  their  first  expe- 
dition to  India  in  1595.  They  seized  many  of  the 
trading  posts  formerly  held  in  the  East  Indies  by  the 
Portuguese  and  they  have  managed  to  hold  some  of 
them  to  the  present  time.  (4)  The  French.  The  king 
of  France,  not  to  be  behind  his  neighbors,  sent  his 
sailors  west  and  east  and  laid  claim  to  much  of  North 
America  and  to  parts  of  India.  (5)  The  English. 
Though  they  came  late  upon  the  scene,  the  English 
soon  surpassed  all  their  rivals  in  the  number  of  their 
merchants,  sailors,  and  battleships.  By  building  a 
mighty  navy,  England  became  mistress  of  the  seas  - 
the  greatest  sea  power  that  the  world  had  ever  seen. 

THE  COMMERCIAL  TRIUMPH  OF  ENGLAND 

Victory   over   the   Spanish.     The   English   king  had 
sent  John  Cabot  across  the  Atlantic  five  years  after 


THE  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN   NATIONS 


265 


Columbus  made  his  first  voyage  (First  Book,  pp.  26-29) ; 
but  nearly  a  hundred  years  passed  before  the  English 
people  began  to  trade  and  form  colonies. 

When  the  English  finally  began  to  go  abroad,  they 
turned  their  attention  to  America,  where  the  Spanish 


From  an  old  print 

A  SPANISH  MISSION  IN  CALIFORNIA,  BUILT  WHEN  SPAIN 
RULED  THE  SOUTHWEST 

were  making  huge  fortunes.  Defying  the  king  of 
Spain,  English  sailors  raided  his  towns  in  the  West 
Indies  and  Central  and  South  America.  They  at- 
tempted to  plant  colonies  in  parts  of  North  America 
which  he  claimed.  One  of  them,  Sir  Francis  Drake, 
sailed  all  the  way  around  the  world  (1577-80),  looting 


266  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Spanish  ships  and  trading  posts  as  he  went  (First 
Book,  pp.  38-44). 

The  king  of  Spain  could  not  contain  his  wrath  when 
he  heard  of  Drake's  exploits,  and  made  ready  for  war. 
In  1588,  he  sent  a  powerful  fleet  of  battleships,  the 
Armada,  to  the  English  Channel  to  drive  his  English 
rivals  from  the  sea.  Instead  of  winning  a  great  victory, 
the  Spaniards  suffered  a  terrible  defeat  (First  Book, 
pp.  45-47).  Spanish  sea  power  was  badly  crippled  and 
the  English  no  longer  feared  it. 

Still,  Spain  managed  to  hold  most  of  her  colonies 
until  the  nineteenth  century.  She  held  for  a  long  time 
all  of  America  from  what  is  now  the  southern  part  of  the 
United  States  down  to  the  tip  of  South  America, 
except  Brazil,  which  was  Portuguese.  She  owned 
Cuba  and  most  of  the  West  Indies.  She  also  held 
the  Philippines  and  other  islands  in  the  East  (First 
Book,  pp.  192,  372-375). 

The  Triumph  of  the  English  over  the  Dutch.  The 
Dutch,  as  well  as  the  English,  profited  from  the  down- 
fall of  the  Spanish  Armada.  They  too  were  mortal 
enemies  of  the  Spanish.  They  rapidly  pushed  forward 
their  trade  with  India  and  made  huge  sums  of  moaey 
by  carrying  goods  to  England  for  sale.  Seeing  large 
profits  going  to  their  Dutch  rivals,  the  English  in  1651 
passed  a  law  against  them,  known  as  the  Navigation 
Act.  This  law  forbade  foreigners  to  carry  into  Eng- 
land in  their  ships  any  goods  except  those  which  they 
had  grown  or  made  themselves. 


THE  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  267 

Within  twenty-five  years,  there  were  three  wars 
between  England  and  Holland.  In  the  second  of  these 
contests,  the  English  wrested  from  the  Dutch  their 
rich  province  of  New  Netherland  in  America.  In 


From  an  old  print 
A  VIEW  OF  NEW  AMSTERDAM  IN  NEW  NETHERLAND 

1664,  the  old  governor  at  New  Amsterdam  surrendered 
with  a  heavy  heart  to  the  British  and  lowered  his  flag. 
New  Netherland  became  New  York  (First  Book, 
PP-  65-73). 


268  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Still  the  Dutch  were  not  daunted  ;  their  fleet  swept 
up  the  Thames  and  burned  English  war  vessels  even  at 
the  docks.  The  English  paid  back  their  foes  for  this 
defeat  in  a  few  years.  They  joined  the  French  in  a 
war  on  The  Netherlands,  which  proved  very  costly  to 
the  Dutch  in  men  and  money. 

After  this  affair,  the  Dutch  could  no  longer  hope  to 
rival  the  naval  power  of  England.  Still  they  were 
permitted  to  retain  many  of  their  islands  in  the  East 
Indies,  including  Java  and  Sumatra.  They  held,  until 
1815,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  they  had  seized 
many  years  before.  For  a  long  time  after  the  close 
of  the  third  war,  in  1674,  the  English  and  Dutch  were 
at  peace.  Indeed,  when  the  Prince  of  Orange  be- 
came king  of  England,  as  William  III  (p.  253),  the  two 
nations  united  in  wars  on  a  common  rival,  the  king  of 
France. 

THE  CONFLICT  BETWEEN  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE  IN 
INDIA  AND  NORTH  AMERICA 

India  in  the  Year  1600.  When  the  English  first 
began  to  trade  in  the  East,  India,  a  vast  peninsula 
jutting  out  from  southern  Asia,  was  a  great  empire. 
The  land  was  occupied  by  tens  of  millions  of  people 
mainly  engaged  in  tilling  the  soil.  There  were  many 
cities  filled  with  wonderful  temples  and  palaces.  There 
were  libraries  stocked  with  books  written  by  some 
of  the  world's  wisest  thinkers.  Indian  weavers  made 
silks  and  linen  finer  than  any  European  artisans  could 


THE   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN   NATIONS 


269 


make.  Rich  Indian  merchants  and  princes  had  huge 
stores  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones.  In  a  word, 
India  was  a  highly  civilized  country.  The  various 
peoples  of  India,  however,  differed  in  race  and  lan- 
guage. They  were  held  together  as  one  nation  merely 
by  the  power  of  a 
strong  emperor,  the 
Great  Mogul,  as  he 
was  called  by  the 
English. 

The  English  and 
French  Gain  a  Foot- 
hold. Ini6oo,some 
English  merchants 
formed  an  East 
India  Company  to 
trade  in  the  Far 
East.  Soon  they 
were  sending  fleet 
after  fleet  of  mer- 
chant ships  around 
the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Indian 
ports.  The  new- 
comers were  welcomed  by  the  natives  and  were  per- 
mitted to  build  factories,  or  warehouses,  in  certain  cities. 
The  Great  Mogul  ordered  his  governors  to  "give  them 
freedom  answerable  to  their  desires,  to  sell,  buy,  and 
transport  into  their  country  at  their  pleasure."  The 


TAJ  MAHAL,  A  MARVELOUS  TOMB  BUILT  BY 
AN  INDIAN  EMPEROR  FOR  His  WIFE 


270  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Dutch  and  the  Portuguese,  who  were  already  in  India, 
could  do  nothing  but  make  the  best  of  the  situation. 

Likewise,  when  the  French  merchants  came  in  1669, 
they  too  were  allowed  to  trade  by  the  Mogul,  and  to 
build  their  warehouses  as  the  other  Europeans  had  done 
before  them.  By  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, the  merchants  of  the  rival  European  nations 
were  doing  a  thriving  business  in  tea,  silk,  and  other 
Indian  goods. 

The  Decline  of  the  Mogul  Empire.  While  the  Mogul 
empire  lasted,  the  European  traders  in  India  could  go 
about  safely  and  transact  business  without  fear  of  rob- 
bers or  tax  gatherers.  This  peaceful  state  of  affairs  came 
to  an  end  in  1707.  In  that  year  Arungzebe,  the  last 
of  the  great  Indian  emperors,  died,  leaving  no  son  strong 
enough  to  hold  together  the  vast  heritage.  Then  the 
empire  began  to  dissolve.  Local  princes,  nawabs 
(nabobs),  and  rajahs,  like  feudal  lords  in  Europe  in 
the  middle  ages,  declared  their  independence.  At  once, 
they  began  to  struggle  one  with  another  to  gain  more 
territory.  India  became  a  scene  of  disorder  and  war- 
fare like  Europe  after  the  fall  of  Rome. 

The  English  Conquest  of  India.  Both  the  English 
and  the  French  in  India  were  quick  to  see  their  chance. 
They  soon  learned  that  a  powerful  army  could  conquer 
all  India,  section  by  section.  The  French  governor, 
Dupleix  (pronounced  Duplex),  fortified  the  town  of 
Pondicherry.  He  then  organized  bands  of  native  sol- 
diers, called  by  the  English  sepoys,  and,  in  1741,  began 


271 


272 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


a  career  of  conquest.  About  the  same  time  an  Eng- 
lish leader,  Robert  Clive,  determined  to  gain  all  he 
could  for  the  English  East  India  Company.  Whenever 
England  and  France  were  at  war  in  Europe,  and  some- 
times when  they  were  not,  their  agents  in  India  fought 
for  mastery  over  the  crumbling  Mogul  empire. 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 


THE  MODERN  RAILWAY  STATION  AT  BOMBAY,  INDIA 

In  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-63),  the  triumph  of 
the  English  was  quick  and  final.  The  French  were 
defeated  and  driven  out  of  India.  They  were  allowed 
to  keep  a  few  trading  centers,  but  they  had  to  give 
up  all  hope  of  subduing  India. 

That  task  was  undertaken  by  the  English.    By  a  long 


TtiE   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN   NATIONS  273 

and  gradual  process,  they  overcame  one  Indian  prince 
after  another  until  the  whole  Mogul  empire  passed 
under  their  control ;  rather,  we  should  say  under  the 
control  of  the  English  East  India  Company.  Thus  the 
agents  of  a  trading  company  became  the  rulers  of 
an  empire.  They  ruled  it  until  a  terrible  native  revolt, 
known  as  the  Sepoy  Rebellion,  broke  out  in  1857.  Then 
the  English  government  set  aside  the  Company  and 
took  over  the  control  of  Indian  affairs  itself.  About 
twenty  years  later,  Queen  Victoria,  with  pomp  and 
ceremony,  was  proclaimed  "  Empress  of  India." 

The  Triumph  of  the  English  in  Canada.  The  contest 
in  India  was  only  one  part  of  the  mighty  struggle 
between  the  English  and  the  French  over  foreign 
possessions.  They  waged  war  upon  each  other  on  the 
banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  as  well  as  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ganges. 

While  the  English  were  building  their  thirteen  col- 
onies on  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  French  occupied  Canada 
(First  Book,  pp.  83-92).  From  their  base  in  Canada, 
French  pioneers  explored  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Ohio 
Valley,  and  the  Mississippi  basin.  They  took  posses- 
sion of  the  land  and  named  it  Louisiana  in  honor  of 
the  Grand  Monarch,  Louis  XIV.  They  founded  towns 
at  Montreal  and  at  New  Orleans  and  built  forts  here 
and  there  in  the  vast  wilderness  between  these  two 
towns.  They  threatened  the  western  borders  of  the 
English  colonies,  especially  Virginia  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. 


BRITISH  AND  FRENCH  RIVALS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA 
274 


THE  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  275 

It  was  on  this  border  that  the  French  and  Indian 
War  broke  out.  In  1755  occurred  the  defeat  of  Gen- 
eral Braddock,  the  English  commander  (First  Book, 
pp.  92-101).  From  the  forests  of  Pennsylvania  the 
war  spread  to  Europe,  where  it  was  known  as  the 
Seven  Years'  War.  The  English  minister,  William 
Pitt,  bent  every  energy  to  bring  ruin  upon  France, 
and  was  successful. 

At  the  end  of  the  war  in  1763,  Canada  and  most  of 
the  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi  passed  under  the 
British  flag.  Well  could  Pitt  boast  that  England  was 
victorious  at  once  in  America  and  in  India,  "  the  umpire 
of  the  continent,  the  mistress  of  the  sea."  As  colo- 
nial powers,  the  Dutch  were  humbled,  the  Spanish 
reduced  to  a  low  rank,  and  the  French  crippled  by 
the  triumphant  British  on  land  and  sea.  Proudly  could 
the  English  historian  write  :  "The  Atlantic  was  dwin- 
dling into  a  mere  strait  within  the  British  empire." 

THE  BALANCE  OF  POWER  IN  EUROPE 

How  the  Idea  Arose.  The  wars  over  trade  and  ter- 
ritory in  all  parts  of  the  world  were  accompanied,  as 
we  have  hinted,  by  wars  in  Europe  itself.  This 
was  of  course  nothing  new.  From  the  downfall  of  the 
Roman  empire  onward,  war  had  been  the  chief  business 
of  kings  and  princes.  The  trade  with  lands  beyond  the 
seas,  discovered  by  the  explorers,  only  gave  new  rea- 
sons for  fighting.  The  rulers  of  Europe  only  found 
fresh  excuses  for  pouncing  upon  their  neighbors  and 


2/6  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

seizing  their  territory.  Wars  became  more  deadly 
and  more  costly  than  ever,  and  there  was  always  danger 
that  some  one  country,  like  Rome  of  old,  might  become 
supreme  over  all  Europe. 

In  this  state  of  affairs,  diplomats  invented  a  scheme 
known  as  "  the  balance  of  power."  It  was  their  idea 
to  form  alliances  among  nations  in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  any  one  of  them  from  becoming  the  master 
of  all  Europe.  It  was  cold-blooded  business.  Kings 
made  alliances  and  broke  them  with  as  much  ease  as 
they  changed  their  clothes.  They  embraced  a  brother 
king  one  year  and  waged  war  on  him  the  following  year, 
if  he  became  too  powerful.  Soldiers  fought  under  one 
flag  one  year  and  under  another  flag  the  next  year  — 
with  equal  zeal.  Such  was  the  chief  diplomatic  interest 
of  England,  Spain,  France,  Holland,  and  Austria  for 
nearly  three  centuries.  In  the  eighteenth  century  two 
new  powers  came  upon  the  scene  :  Prussia,  under  the 
Hohenzollerns  ;  and  Russia,  under  the  Romanoffs. 

England  and  the  Balance  of  Power.  In  this  game, 
England  played  a  peculiar  part.  English  kings  had 
once  fought  in  France  with  a  hope  of  winning  French 
territory,  but  they  had  long  ago  given  up  that  project. 
Still,  England  had  a  keen  interest  in  the  balance  of 
power  in  Europe.  In  the  first  place,  she  knew  that 
if  any  king  became  supreme  on  the  continent,  he 
would  soon  attempt  to  cross  the  Channel  and  invade 
her  island  home.  In  the  second  place,  England  was 
often  at  war  with  Spain,  Holland,  and  France  over 


THE    RIVALRY   OF    EUROPEAN    NATIONS 


277 


foreign  trade  and  territories.  Thus  she  was  deeply 
concerned  in  all  quarrels  that  promised  to  increase 
her  possessions  in  India  or  North  America  or  to 
enlarge  her  trade  at  the  expense  of  her  rivals.  To 
trace  the  history  of  the  balance  of  power,  therefore, 


WESTERN  EUROPE  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY 

we  must  go  over  in  another  way  the  period  which  we 
have  just  treated. 

The  Grand  Alliance  of  1689  against  France.     After 
the  decline  of  Spain  and  Holland,  England's  greatest 


278  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

rival  in  Europe,  as  we  have  seen,  was  France.  Under 
an  ambitious  and  warlike  king,  Louis  XIV  (1643-1715), 
France  sought  to  become  a  world  power.  Besides 
starting  colonies  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  Louis 
tried  to  annex  some  of  the  land  now  included  in 
Belgium.  That  brought  him  into  a  conflict  with  the 
Spanish  king,  to  whom  the  territory  coveted  by  Louis 
then  belonged.  Louis  was  also  bent  upon  adding  to 
France  lands  to  the  east  as  far  as  the  Rhine  River. 
That  aroused  the  ire  of  several  German  princes  and 
particularly  of  the  ruler  of  Austria. 

The  king  of  England,  William  III,  hearing  about 
Louis'  plans,  set  to  work  to  defeat  them.  He 
brought  Holland,  Spain,  and  Austria  into  a  com- 
bination against  France.  England  commanded  the 
sea  and  sent  troops  to  the  continent  to  aid  her  allies 
in  attacking  France  on  the  landward  side.  The  proud 
Louis,  after  eight  years  of  fighting,  was  forced  to  make 
a  humiliating  peace. 

The  Grand  Alliance  of  1701  against  France  and  Spain. 
It  was  not  long,  however,  before  a  new  cause  of  war 
arose.  In  1700,  the  childless  king  of  Spain  died,  leav- 
ing his  immense  realms  in  the  Old  World  and  the  New 
to  a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  Thus  both  France  and 
Spain  were  in  the  hands  of  one  royal  family.  Both 
were  European  powers  of  high  rank.  Both  held 
great  domains  in  the  New  World.  Both  were  rivals 
of  Great  Britain  for  trade  in  the  Far  East  and  the 
Far  West. 


THE    RIVALRY   OF    EUROPEAN    NATIONS  279 

The  peril  to  the  English  empire  was  undoubtedly 
great,  and  English  statesmen  were  quick  to  scent  the 
danger.  The  peril  was  equally  great  for  the  Dutch 
and  the  Austrians.  So  by  skillful  management  William 
III  was  able  to  unite  England,  Holland,  and  Austria 
in  an  alliance  against  France  and  Spain  in  a  long 
war  that  broke  out  in  1701  and  lasted  until  1713. 
This  conflict  was  known  as  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession. 

When  peace  came  at  last,  England  was  amply 
rewarded.  The  fear  that  Spain  and  Spanish  America 
might  be  united  with  France  had  been  the  chief  reason 
for  the  war.  That  fear  was  now  removed.  It  was  agreed 
that  the  crowns  of  Spain  and  France  should  never  be 
united.  In  addition  England  obtained  from  France 
Newfoundland,  Acadia,  and  Hudson's  Bay  in  America. 
She  wrested  from  Spain  Gibraltar,  the  fortress  that 
guards  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  Minorca, 
an  island  not  far  away. 

England  and  Prussia  against  France,  Austria,  and 
Spain.  Distracted  Europe  was  not  to  enjoy  peace 
very  long.  In  1740,  Frederick  the  Great,  the  king  of 
Prussia,  and  Louis  XV,  the  king  of  France,  united 
in  a  war  to  despoil  Austria.  They  had  started  on  the 
enterprise  when  England  took  a  hand  in  the  fray 
also.  She  furnished  money  to  hard-pressed  Austria 
and  gave  military  assistance.  This  war,  too,  spread 
to  America,  where  it  was  known  as  King  George's 
War. 


280  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

Peace  came  in  1748,  but  lasted  only  for  a  few  years. 
Seven  years  later  the  French  and  English  came  to  blows 
in  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania  (p.  275).  There 
the  pioneers  of  the  two  nations  met  in  deadly  combat. 
War  then  flamed  up  in  two  hemispheres.  As  France  now 
won  Austria  over  to  her  side,  England  arranged  a  new 
balance  of  power.  She  united  with  Prussia  against 
her  old  ally,  Austria,  and  her  ancient  enemy,  France. 
Troops  were  sent  to  aid  Frederick  the  Great,  the 
Prussian  king,  and  English  gold  was  poured  into  his 
treasury. 

In  America,  General  Wolfe  astounded  Europe  by 
his  brilliant  conquest  of  Quebec  (First  Book,  pp.  98- 
101).  In  India,  Robert  Clive  achieved  a  victory  no 
less  important  at  the  battle  of  Plassey,  in  which  he 
overwhelmed  the  French  and  their  Indian  allies.  "  We 
are  forced  to  ask  every  morning  what  victory  there  is 
for  fear  of  missing  one,"  exclaimed  a  witty  English- 
man as  the  news  of  one  triumph  after  another  poured 
into  London. 

In  the  end,  England's  arms  were  victorious  every- 
where. France  was  impoverished  and  weakened  in 
Europe.  She  was  forced,  as  we  have  seen,  to  give 
up  her  colonies  in  North  America  as  well  as  in 
India.  Canada  became  English.  The  name  of  William 
Pitt,  the  great  English  minister  who  brought  Eng- 
land to  such  a  pitch  of  power,  was  known  and  feared 
around  the  world.  Even  the  former  French  strong- 
hold at  Fort  Duquesne,  in  western  Pennsylvania, 


THE    RIVALRY   OF   EUROPEAN   NATIONS 


281 


282  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

was  christened  Pittsburgh  in  his  honor.  Louisiana, 
beyond  the  Mississippi,  was  handed  over  to  Spain. 
Prussia  became  now  a  strong  military  country 
and  was  in  time  to  become  master  of  all  the  German 
states. 

The  American  Colonies,  France,  Holland,  and  Spain 
against  England.  It  was  to  France,  smarting  under  the 
ruinous  defeat  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  that  the 
American  revolutionists  turned  for  help  in  1776  (First 
Book,  pp.  136-142).  French  statesmen  saw  that  the 
time  had  come  to  call  the  New  World  into  the  Euro- 
pean balance  of  power.  There  were  many  Frenchmen 
who  sympathized  with  American  ideas  ;  but  the  king 
of  France  did  not.  He  saw  in  the  possibility  of  Amer- 
ican independence  merely  a  check  on  the  immense  power 
which  England  had  won  in  the  world.  He  at  first  aided 
the  Americans  secretly  with  money  and  arms.  In  1778 
he  made  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  them.  Then  French 
battleships  and  military  forces  were  sent  to  help  the 
American  colonies  in  their  struggle  against  Great 
Britain. 

Spain  and  The  Netherlands,  old  commercial  rivals, 
also  joined  in  the  war  on  England. 

The  outcome  of  this  new  balance  of  power  was  the 
defeat  of  England  and  the  independence  of  America. 
Henceforward,  the  diplomats  of  Europe,  in  their 
schemes  for  war  and  empire,  had  to  reckon  with  a  new 
republic  across  the  Atlantic.  In  Benjamin  Franklin 
(First  Book,  pp.  136-143),  the  American  minister  who 


THE    RIVALRY   OF    EUROPEAN    NATIONS 


283 


284  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

brought  about  the  alliance  with  France,  they  had  found 
a  supreme  master  of  their  art. 

England's  Combinations  against  France  (1793-1815). 
England  and  France  were  at  peace  only  for  a  short 
time  after  the  American  War  for  Independence. 
In  1793,  they  began  a  fresh  series  of  wars  that 
lasted,  except  for  a  short  break,  until  1815.  When 
this  new  series  of  conflicts  opened,  the  French 
had  begun  their  great  revolution  (below,  pp.  299- 
309).  They  had  executed  the  king  and  set  up  a 
republic. 

George  III  and  the  English  ruling  classes  were  dread- 
fully frightened  at  this  outbreak  so  near  at  hand,  in 
the  same  way  that  the  French  king  had  been  alarmed 
at  the  English  revolution  a  hundred  years  before 
(p.  257).  When  the  French  occupied  Belgium,  they 
were  still  more  frightened.  Then  the  old  commercial 
and  colonial  jealousy  flamed  up  again.  England  gave 
money  to  Holland  and  Prussia  and  formed  a  combi- 
nation against  France. 

At  this  turn  in  events,  a  great  military  commander, 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  rose  to  the  head  of  affairs  in 
France  (below,  p.  310).  For  a  long  time  he  was  vic- 
torious on  land  over  all  combinations  formed  against 
him.  On  the  sea,  however,  the  British  beat  him  in 
every  battle.  At  last,  in  1815,  Napoleon,  with  all 
Europe  against  him,  was  overthrown  at  the  battle  of 
Waterloo.  The  credit  for  the  triumph  over  Napoleon 
seems  about  equally  divided  between  the  English  and 


THE    RIVALRY   OF    EUROPEAN   NATIONS 


285 


the   Prussians,   who  fought   side  by  side   against  the 
French. 

In  the  Napoleonic  wars,  as  in  the  wars  of  the 
preceding  century,  England's  gains  were  colonial. 
She  took  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  became 
the  basis  of  her  empire  in  South  Africa.  She  ob- 


Vrom  an  old  print 

CAPE  TOWN  TRANSFERRED  TO  THE  BRITISH  DURING  THE  NAPOLEONIC  WARS 

tained  certain  French  islands  in  the  West  Indies, 
ajid  she  added  the  island  of  Ceylon  to  her  growing 
empire  in  India.  Not  until  a  hundred  years  later, 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  in  1914,  was 
England  again  seriously  threatened  by  any  continental 
power. 


286        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    From  a  study  of  the  first  two  paragraphs  of  this  chapter, 
discuss  two  important  ways  in  which  the  exploration  and  settle- 
ment of    the  Americas   changed    the  life  of    European    peoples. 
2.    What  is  meant  by  the  word  "rivals"?     Locate  on  the  map 
facing  p.  436  the  five  nations  that  were  rivals  for  the  commerce  of 
the  world  during  the  period  covered  by  this  chapter.     Can  you 
think  of  any  reasons  that  will  explain  why  such  countries  as  Italy, 
Greece,  Germany,  and  Russia  were  not  so  much  interested  in  world 
commerce  as  were  these  five  nations?       3.    Locate  on  the  map 
the  principal  parts  of  the  world  with  which  the  Spanish  early  car- 
ried on  commerce  ;   the  Dutch  ;   the  French. 

II.  I.    Point  out  on  the  map  the  extent  of  the  Spanish  pos- 
sessions   in    the   Americas    during   this    period.     Locate    Spain's 
principal   possessions   in   the   Far   East.       2.    Why  is   the   name 
of  Sir  Francis    Drake    remembered?       3.    The    English    victory 
over  the  Spanish  Armada  is  considered  one  of  the  most  important 
events    in    English    history.     Why  ?       4.    How   did    the    English 
Navigation  Act  aid  English  shipowners  ?       5.    In  what  way  did 
the  struggle  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch  influence  American 
history  ?       6.    Locate  the  Dutch  possessions  in  the  Far  East  on 
the  map  on  p.  271. 

III.  i.    How  was  India  reached  from  Europe  before  the  Euro- 
peans learned  how  to  sail  their  ships  around  Africa  ?       2.    Recall 
why  great  civilizations  grew  up  in  the  Nile  and  Euphrates  valleys. 
Are  there  similar  reasons  that  will  explain  why  India  was  a  favor- 
able place  for  the  development  of  a  civilized  people  ?      3 .    How  were 
the  people  of  India  held  together  at  the  time  when  the  Europeans 
opened  an  extensive  sea  trade  with  them  ?     In  what  way  was  the 
history  of  India  thereafter  like  the  history  of  Rome  ?      4.  "  Both  the 
English  and  the  French  in  India  were  quick  to  see  their  chance." 
Explain  this  statement  and  tell  what  each  hoped  to  gain  by  conquer- 
ing India.   About  how  long  had  the  English  been  interested  in  India 


THE    RIVALRY    OF    EUROPEAN    NATIONS  287 

before  they  secured  complete  control  of  the  country  ?  In  what 
important  way  does  the  present  control  of  India  by  the  English 
differ  from  their  control  in  the  early  days  ?  5.  The  English 
people  were  also  interested  in  North  America.  Did  this  interest 
differ  in  any  respect  from  their  interest  in  India  ?  If  so,  explain. 
6.  Point  out  the  extent  of  the  French  and  English  possessions 
in  North  America  just  before  the  Seven  Years'  War.  7.  What 
were  the  chief  interests  of  the  French  in  making  settlements  in 
North  America  ?  How  did  these  differ  from  the  interests  of  the 
English  ? 

IV.  i.  What  is  meant  by  an  "alliance"  among  nations? 
How  would  such  alliances  help  to  prevent  any  one  nation  or  king 
from  becoming  master  of  all  the  rest?  Why  are  alliances  not 
always  successful  in  doing  this  ?  2.  Why  was  England  interested 
in  keeping  any  one  nation  on  the  continent  of  Europe  from  becom- 
ing supreme?  3.  Locate  on  the  map  facing  p.  436  the  lands 
that  Louis  XIV  wished  to  add  to  France.  Locate  the  countries 
that  made  an  alliance  against  him.  Why  was  the  war  that 
followed,  which  led  to  fighting  between  the  English  and  French  in 
America,  known  to  the  English  colonists  as  King  William's  War  ? 

4.  Spain  was  against  France  in  the  war  just  referred  to;  how  did 
she  come  to  be  allied  with  France  in  the  next  great  war  ?     Locate 
the  new  possessions  that  England  gained  in  this  war.     Find  out 
what  this  war  was  called  by  the  English  colonists  in  America. 

5.  How  many  years  elapsed  between  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  and  King  George's  War  ?     What  nations  were  allied 
in   the  latter  war?       6.    How  many  years   passed   between   the 
close  of  King  George's  War  and  the  opening  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War?     The  last-named   war  differed   from   the  earlier  wars   by 
starting  in  America.     How  did  it  start?     Locate  the  European 
nations  that  later  took  part  in  it  and  tell  which  were  in  alliance 
with  the  English  and  which  with  the  French.       7.   What  Euro- 
pean country  that  we  have  heard  very  little  about  up  to  this  time 
now  becomes  important  ?  _   8.   What  were  the  principal   results 


288        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

of  the  Seven  Years'  War  for  England  ?  For  our  country  ?  For 
France  ?  9.  What  was  the  first  alliance  entered  into  by  the 
United  States  ?  In  what  important  way  did  this  influence  the 
" balance  of  power"  in  Europe?  10.  With  what  countries  did 
England  make  an  alliance  in  order  to  crush  Napoleon  ? 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

1.  Study  the   map  of  Asia    in    your   textbook    in    geography. 
What  mountains  bound  India  on  the  north  ?     Perhaps  you  can 
find  some  facts  about  these  great  mountains  that  will  explain  why 
they  have  been  a  real   protection  to  India. 

2.  One  of  the  chief  purposes  of  your  study  of  geography  is  to  en- 
able you  to  recognize  and  to  locate  in  your  "  mind's  eye  "  the  impor- 
tant places  which  you  encounter  in  your  reading.    This  chapter  con- 
tains many  such  names,  but  no  more  than  you  would  find  on  the 
front  page  of  an  ordinary  newspaper. 

Hold  a  class  contest  to  find  out  who  can  put  the  largest  number 
of  place-names  in  this  chapter  in  the  proper  column.  The  follow- 
ing will  be  the  headings  of  the  columns  :  Hemispheres ;  Conti- 
nents ;  Oceans  ;  Archipelagoes  ;  Islands  ;  Lakes  ;  Rivers  ;  Straits  ; 
Bays  ;  States  ;  Modern  Countries  ;  Former  Countries  ;  Cities  of 
General  Importance ;  Cities  Mentioned  for  Historical  Importance. 
The  following  places,  listed  here  alphabetically,  are  all  mentioned 
in  this  chapter  and  should  be  classified  in  this  way :  Acadia,  Asia, 
Atlantic,  Austria,  Belgium,  Brazil,  Canada,  Central  America, 
Ceylon,  Cuba,  East  Indies,  England,  English  Channel,  Europe, 
Fort  Duquesne,  France,  Ganges,  Gibraltar,  Good  Hope,  Great 
Lakes,  Holland,  Hudson  ('s)  Bay,.  India,  Java,  Louisiana,  Minorca, 
Mississippi,  Montreal,  Newfoundland,  New  Netherland,  New 
Orleans,  New  World,  New  York,  North  America,  Ohio,  Old  World, 
Pennsylvania,  Philippines,  Pittsburgh,  Plassey,  Pondicherry, 
Portugal,  Prussia,  Quebec,  Rhine,  Russia,  South  Africa,  South 
America,  Spain,  St.  Lawrence,  Sumatra,  Thames,  Virginia,  Wa- 
terloo, West  Indies. 


THE   RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  289 

3.    Hold  another  class  contest  to  see  who  can  locate  correctly  the 
largest  number  of  these  places  on  an  outline  map  of  the  world. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

CREIGHTON  —  Stories  from  English  History,   xlviii-xlix. 
DALE  —  Landmarks  of  British  History,  x,  xi. 
MARSHALL  —  A  History  of  France,  Ivi,  Ivii. 
O'NEILL  —  The  Story  of  the  World,  xxxviii-xlii. 
TAPPAN  —  Hero  Stories  of  France,  xiii-xxi. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

WHILE  English  sailors  and  soldiers  were  beating  the 
forces  of  the  French  king  on  sea  and  land,  English 
ideas  were  spreading  f among  his  subjects  and  helping 
to  destroy  his  power  at  home.  Moreover,  his  wars  - 
including  his  aid  to  the  United  States  in  the  War  for 
Independence  —  added  to  his  debts  and  increased  the 
taxes  laid  upon  his  subjects. 

As  the  burdens  grew  heavier,  the  French  people 
listened  more  eagerly  to  writers  who  told  them  how,  in 
England,  the  king  could  not  collect  taxes  without  the 
consent  of  Parliament.  The  influence  of  the  English 
revolution  was  made  even  greater  by  the  American 
revolution.  The  Americans  had  thrown  off  the  rule  of 
the  king  altogether  and  had  set  up  their  own  plan  of 
government.  French  soldiers  like  Lafayette  had  helped 
in  the  American  war  for  independence  and  had  carried 
back  to  France  stories  of  what  they  had  seen  and  heard 
in  the  New  World. 

Thus  many  things  prepared  the  way  for  a  revolution 
in  France  like  that  which  had  occurred  in  England  a 
hundred  years  before.  When  the  upheaval  came, 

Frenchmen  proclaimed  the  democratic  ideas  which  the 

290 


THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION 


291 


Americans  had  recently  set  forth  in  their  Declaration  of 
Independence. 

THE  OLD  ORDER  IN  FRANCE 

The  General  Situation  in  Europe.     On    the    eve   of 

the  French  Revolution,  nearly  all  the  people  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  were  ruled  by  absolute  monarchs. 
The  Bourbons  in  France  and  Spain,  the  Hohenzollerns 


From  an  old  print 

THE  GALLERY  OF  THE  ROYAL  PALACE  AT  FONTAINEBLEAU  (FRANCE) 

in  Prussia,  the  Hapsburgs  in  Austria,  and  the  Romanoffs 
in  Russia  could  all  boast  of  almost  unlimited  power. 
The  minor  princes  of  Germany  and  Italy  were  no  less 
supreme  in  their  tiny  realms.  In  only  a  few  places, 
like  Switzerland,  Holland,  and  Scandinavia,  did  the 


292  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

people  have  any  share  in  their  own  government,  as  they 
had  in  England  and  in  the  United  States.  Everywhere 
else  on  the  continent  the  masses  were  subjects  and 
most  of  them  were  still  serfs.  Everywhere  feudal  land- 
lords and  the  clergy  enjoyed  a  great  deal  of  the  power 
which  had  been  theirs  in  the  middle  ages. 

In  the  magnificence  of  the  king,  the  splendor  of  his 
court,  and  the  authority  of  the  clergy,  France  stood  out 
above  all  other  monarchies  of  Europe.  She  was  the 
model  and  envy  of  all  other  kingdoms.  Treaties  among 
nations  were  written  in  the  French  language.  French 
manners,  French  styles,  and  French  plays  became 
fashionable  among  society  people  everywhere  from 
Madrid  to  St.  Petersburg. 

The  French  King.  The  powers  of  the  French 
king  seemed  boundless  —  even  greater  by  far  than 
those  of  the  English  king  had  been  before  the  Puritan 
revolution  of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  word  was 
law.  Any  decree  which  he  issued  had  to  be  obeyed. 
He  could  lay  taxes  at  will  without  asking  the  consent 
of  the  taxpayers.  He  could  spend  the  money  as  he 
pleased.  By  his  mere  signature  on  a  piece  of  paper, 
he  could  put  anyone  in  prison  without  trial  and  keep 
him  there  as  long  as  he  wished.  He  could  make  alli- 
ances with  other  kings  and  princes,  either  secretly  or 
openly,  and  thus  involve  his  country  in  all  kinds  of 
troubles.  He  could  declare  war  or  make  peace  at 
will.  He  appointed  and  removed  all  high  officers 
and  could  compel  them  to  carry  out  his  wishes. 


THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


293 


294  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

As  may  be  imagined,  the  expenses  of  the  king  were 
enormous.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  costs  of  govern- 
ment, there  were  the  heavy  charges  for  wars  entered 
into  for  glory  or  the  conquest  of  new  territory.  The 
king  kept  up  many  costly  mansions  and  had  armies  of 
servants.  The  royal  palace  at  Versailles  alone  is 
said  to  have  cost  more  than  fifty  million  dollars.  The 
upkeep  of  the  spacious  buildings  and  gardens  was  a 
drain  on  his  treasury.  The  king  also  had  about  him 
hundreds  of  courtiers  who  lived  upon  his  bounty  and 
encouraged  him  in  wasting  money.  To  meet  his  bills, 
the  king  merely  issued  orders  on  the  treasury.  When 
the  treasury  was  empty,  he  borrowed.  At  no  time 
did  he  publish  any  statement  showing  what  his  receipts 
and  expenditures  had  been.  The  finances  of  his  king- 
dom he  deemed  a  matter  of  no  concern  to  the  taxpayers. 

Indeed  the  king's  subjects  had  been  well  schooled 
to  accept  this  system  without  grumbling.  It  was 
still  a  regular  saying  in  Europe  that  "  the  king  can  do 
no  wrong."  In  Protestant  Prussia  and  in  Catholic 
France  alike,  the  people  were  taught  the  belief  that  the 
king  ruled  by  the  favor  and  will  of  God.  This  idea 
of  divine  right,  which  had  once  been  proclaimed  by 
English  kings,  was  thus  summed  up  by  a  celebrated 
French  bishop  :  '  Rulers  act  as  the  ministers  of  God 
and  as  his  lieutenants  on  earth.  .  .  .  Should  God 
withdraw  his  hand,  the  earth  would  fall  to  pieces ; 
should  the  king's  authority  cease  in  the  realm,  all  would 
be  confusion.  .  .  .  The  royal  power  is  absolute.  .  .  . 


THE  FRENCH   REVOLUTION  295 

The  will  of  the  people  is  included  in  his."  Wicked 
kings  were  accountable  to  God  for  their  misdeeds, 
but  they  were  to  be  obeyed  by  their  subjects. 

The  Nobility.  The  French  king  had  stanch  friends 
among  his  nobles,  a  class  of  great  landlords.  Each 
noble  owned  an  estate,  sometimes  of  thousands  of 
acres,  tilled  by  tenants  or  by  serfs.  His  birth  and  rank 
set  him  off  from  the  mass  of  mankind.  The  noble- 
men, too,  had  many  special  rights.  They  escaped  all 
the  heavy  taxes.  They  held  all  the  high  and  important 
offices  in  the  army  and  in  the  government.  They 
crowded  about  the  king's  court  and  got  favors  from  him. 
They  spent  the  rents  collected  from  their  estates  in 
lavish  entertainments.  They  were  happy  when  the 
king  let  them  render  him  the  meanest  service ;  at  the 
same  time,  they  looked  down  upon  merchants  and 
peasants  as  inferior  beings. 

The  Clergy.  Like  the  nobility,  the  French  clergy 
formed  a  distinct  class.  They  were  more  powerful 
than  the  clergy  in  England.  This  was  because  the 
Protestant  revolt  had  been  stifled  in  France  and 
there  were  no  strong  Protestant  sects  to  dispute  their 
authority.  The  priests  were  set  apart  for  spiritual 
duties.  Their  religious  garb  marked  them  off  from 
the  mass  of  the  people.  j 

Though  the  village  priest  was  usually  very  poor,  many 
of  the  monasteries  and  the  higher  clergy  —  especially  the 
bishops  and  archbishops  —  were  very  rich.  About  one 
fourth  of  the  land  of  France  belonged  to  the  Church. 


296  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

The  clergy  were  exempt  from  taxes,  but  they  had 
to  give  large  sums  for  the  support  of  the  poor  and  the 
sick.  They  had  control  of  all  education.  They  chose 
the  subjects  to  be  taught  and  were  themselves  the 
teachers.  They  could  suppress  books  which  they  did 
not  approve.  They  could  collect  taxes,  or  tithes,  for 
their  own  support,  and  punish  people  who  violated  the 
laws  of  the  Church.  They  were  powerful  also  as 
advisers  of  the  king  and  as  leaders  of  opinion. 

The  Third  Estate.  All  the  rest  of  the  French  people 
were  known  as  the  third  estate,  or  third  class.  The  ma- 
jority of  people  everywhere  in  Europe  were  peasants 
and  lived  by  tilling  the  soil.  Unlike  the  agricultural 
laborers  in  England,  many  of  them  in  France  were  still 
serfs.  In  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Russia,  serfdom  was 
about  the  same  as  it  had  been  in  the  middle  ages.  The 
serf  was  not  a  slave ;  that  is,  his  master  could  not  sell 
him  at  the  market.  But  he  was  still  bound  to  the  soil. 

The  leaders  in  the  third  estate  were  merchants, 
manufacturers,  and  lawyers,  rather  than  peasants  or 
artisans.  With  the  growth  of  world  trade  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  French  merchant  class  had 
grown  in  numbers  and  wealth.  Their  warehouses  in 
India  and  China,  their  fleets  and  their  long  lines  of 
wharves  and  docks  bore  witness  to  their  energy  and 
power. 

The  merchants  felt  that  they  were  the  equals  of 
anyone,  but  they  had  to  pay  heavy  taxes  and  enjoyed 
no  favors  at  the  king's  court.  It  is  not  surprising  that 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  297 

they  did  not  like  the  inferior  position  in  which  they 
were  placed.  They  had  to  obey  royal  laws,  yet  they 
were  denied  all  voice  in  making  them.  In  the  govern- 
ment of  France,  the  richest  merchants,  like  the  humblest 
peasant  or  artisan,  had  no  rights.  In  opposing  absolute 
authority  of  the  king,  therefore,  all  these  people  had  a 
common  interest. 

Newspapers,  Books,  and  Public  Opinion.  The  lot  of 
most  editors  and  writers  in  those  old  days  was  not 
a  happy  one.  If  they  praised  the  clergy  and  flattered 
the  king,  they  were  rewarded  with  money  and  positions  ; 
but  it  was  a  blind  person  who  could  not  see  abuses  that 
cried  aloud  for  remedy.  So  a  host  of  writers  began  to 
call  for  reform.  Some  complained  about  the  high- 
handed actions  of  royal  officers,  others  about  heavy 
taxes,  and  others  about  the  special  privileges  of  the 
clergy  and  the  nobility. 

The  critics,  however,  had  a  hard  time.  Some  of 
their  books  were  seized  by  royal  officers  and  others 
were  burned  by  the  hangman.  Many  a  brilliant  writer 
was  fined  or  shut  up  in  prison.  Among  those  punished 
were  some  of  the  ablest  men  of  France.  One  of  them 
wrote  in  favor  of  toleration  for  all  religious  faiths  ;  his 
book  was  declared  to  be  "  seditious  "  and  was  burned. 
Another  writer,  Voltaire,  was  imprisoned  twelve  months 
on  the  charge  that  he  had  written  a  criticism  of  the 
king,  Louis  XIV.  An  abbot  who  wrote  an  amusing 
story  about  a  princess  was  promptly  ordered  to  jail. 

As   prisons,   fines,  and  exile  did  not  stop  criticism, 


298  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

stronger  measures  were  taken.  In  1764  the  French 
king  decreed  that  no  book  should  be  published  that 
dealt  with  political  questions.  A  few  years  later,  the 
government  threatened  with  death  any  writer  who  ex- 
cited the  public  mind,  or  attacked  religion,  or  said  any- 
thing about  royal  finance.  These  heavy  penalties  also 
failed  to  crush  the  critics.  Thereupon  a  high  officer  of 
the  king  proposed  that  no  books  should  be  printed  ex- 
cept on  a  press  owned  by  the  government  and  managed 
by  royal  agents.  This  last  plan  was  not  carried  out. 
A  revolution,  which  overthrew  the  entire  system,  pre- 
vented it. 

THE  PEOPLE  REVOLT 

The  Opening  Scenes.  When  Louis  XVI  came  to 
the  throne  of  France  in  1774,  he  found  himself  an 
absolute  monarch,  but  heavily  in  debt.  His  grand- 
father had  spent  huge  sums  in  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  and  had  lived  extravagantly  besides.  The  new 
king  thought  for  a  while  that  he  would  undertake 
reforms.  In  this  he  was  unsuccessful.  Every  time  he 
cut  off  the  salary  of  a  nobleman  or  reduced  a  pension  a 
great  cry  went  up  from  the  victim.  It  seemed  easier 
to  drift  along  in  the  old  reckless  way,  so  Louis  chose 
that  course.  Moreover,  as  we  have  seen,  he  added  to 
his  debts  by  joining  with  the  Americans  in  1778  in 
their  war  against  England  (First  Book,  pp.  136-142). 
In  a  few  years  Louis  XVPs  treasury  was  empty  and  he 
was  practically  bankrupt.  Then  he  called  upon)  the 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  299 

nobles  and  the  clergy  for  help,  only  to  meet  with  a 
flat  refusal.  This  was  in  1787,  the  year  that  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  was  drafted  at  Phila- 
delphia. 

The  Estates  General.  Being  at  his  wits'  end  for 
money,  the  king  was  forced  to  call  upon  the  nation 
in  1789.  So  he  summoned  a  grand  national  parliament 
representing  the  three  "estates"  —the  clergy,  the  nobil- 
ity, and  the  Third  Estate.  This  assembly,  known  as  the 
Estates  General,  was  the  first  of  the  kind  France  had  seen 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years. 

The  representatives  of  the  Third  Estate  came  in  a 
very  serious  mood.  They  resented  the  way  in  which 
the  king  and  his  ministers  had  ruled — the  waste  of 
money ;  the  injury  to  business  ;  the  persecution  ;  and 
the  indifference  to  the  welfare  of  the  French  people. 
They  debated  their  grievances  with  much  heat.  They 
invited  the  clergy  and  the  nobles  to  sit  and  vote  with 
them  instead  of  forming  two  separate  houses.  When 
the  clergy  and  the  nobles  refused,  the  Third  Estate, 
in  a  revolutionary  outburst,  declared  itself  to  be  "  the 
National  Assembly."  It  solemnly  vowed  that  it  would 
not  dissolve  until  it  had  drawn  up  a  constitution  for 
France.  The  clergy  and  nobility  found  themselves  face 
to  face  with  a  new  ruler,  the  French  nation,  speaking 
through  its  representatives. 

The  Peaceful  Revolution.  It  was  in  the  spring  of 
the  very  year  that  George  Washington  was  inaugurated 
first  President  of  the  United  States  (First  Book,  pp. 


3°° 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


154-155)  that  the  French  nation  set  out  upon  a  road 
of  reform  that  led  to  revolution.     On  July  14,  1789, 


ten  days  after  the  Americans  celebrated  their  thirteenth 
anniversary  of  independence,  the  people  of  Paris  at- 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  301 

tacked  the  Bastille,  an  old  royal  prison,  and  destroyed 
it.  In  memory  of  this  event,  the  I4th  of  July  has 
become  the  chief  national  holiday  of  France. 

For  two  years  the  French  National  Assembly  issued 
decrees  of  reform.  It  abolished  the  dues  owed  by  serfs 
to  their  lords.  It  swept  away  the  special  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  nobility.  Everywhere  the  serfs  and 
peasants  became  free.  It  issued  a  Declaration  of  the 
Rights  of  Man.  It  took  away  from  the  king  the  right 
to  make  laws,  lay  taxes,  or  imprison  at  will.  It 
declared  in  favor  of  religious  toleration  and  freedom  of 
press  and  speech.  The  Assembly  decreed  that  the 
property  of  the  Church  should  belong  to  the  nation, 
and  provided  that  the  clergy  should  be  paid  from 
public  funds.  It  drew  up  a  constitution  for  France. 
It  did  not  overthrow  the  king,  but  it  did  provide  that 
laws  were  to  be  made  and  taxes  voted  by  a  legislature. 
This  legislature  was  to  be  elected  by  all  the  men  who 
paid  a  certain  amount  of  taxes.  Thus,  in  two  years, 
the  old  order  was  swept  away  in  France.  Very  little 
blood  had  been  shed.  The  French  nation  was  attempt- 
ing to  govern  itself  and  the  king  accepted  the  reforms. 

Americans  Hail  the  New  Day  in  France.  The 
reforms  of  the  National  Assembly,  especially  the  new 
French  constitution,  were  greeted  with  general  applause 
in  the  United  States.  "  Liberty  will  have  another 
feather  in  her  cap,"  wrote  a  Boston  editor.  "  In  no 
part  of  the  globe,"  declared  John  Marshall  of  Virginia, 
"  was  this  revolution  hailed  with  more  joy  than  in 


302  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

America."  The  main  key  of  the  old  Bastille  was  sent 
to  George  Washington  as  a  memento  and  accepted 
by  him  as  "  a  token  of  the  victory  gained  by  liberty." 

France  Slipping  into  Disorder.  In  the  midst  of 
the  rejoicing,  however,  there  were  omens  of  trouble. 
French  nobles  who  had  lost  their  privileges  fled  across 
the  Rhine.  There  they  tried  to  get  help  in  a  plan  to 
invade  France,  "  free  the  king,"  and  restore  the  old 
system.  Louis  himself  showed  his  bad  faith  by  at- 
tempting to  escape  from  his  realm.  When  he  was 
captured  and  brought  back,  the  people  were  in  an  angry 
mood. 

Some  agitators  began  boldly  to  demand  a  republic. 
Hundreds  of  non-taxpayers  in  Paris  assembled  on  a 
great  drill  ground  (Champs  de  Mars)  to  petition  for  the 
right  to  vote.  They  came  to  blows  with  the  soldiers 
and  many  of  them  were  killed.  All  France  was  wildly 
excited. 

The  kings  of  Austria  and  Prussia  announced  that 
they  were  ready  to  advance  with  their  armies  and  re- 
store Louis  to  his  old  rights  as  a  brother  sovereign. 
France  answered  by  a  declaration  of  war  on  Austria 
and  was  defeated  in  the  first  battles.  Then  Prussia 
joined  Austria  and  set  her  armies  in  motion.  The 
French  nation  was  in  extreme  danger  of  an  armed  in- 
vasion. In  the  midst  of  the  excitement,  a  mob  broke 
into  the  king's  palace,  forced  him  to  put  on  a  red  liberty 
cap,  and  compelled  him  to  drink  to  the  health  of  the 
people.  Volunteers  from  all  parts  of  France  came  pour- 


THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


303 


ing  in  to  defend  their  country.  One  little  band  of 
them  from  Marseilles  came  marching  along  singing  a 
stirring  hymn  --  the  Marseillaise  —  which  became  the 
hymn  of  the  revo- 
lution and  later  of 
the  republic. 

The  Reign  of 
Terror.  In  this 
hour  of  peril,  a  na- 
tional convention 
was  elected.  Mod- 
erate men  who 
favored  the  king 
were  brushed  aside 
by  radical  repub- 
licans, known  as 
Jacobins.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1792,  the 
convention  abol- 
ished the  monarchy 
and  announced  the 
first  French  Re- 
public. Within  a 
few  months,  it 
tried  the  king,  condemned  him  to  death,  and  executed 
him.  In  a  short  time,  too,  the  queen,  Marie  Antoinette, 
was  sent  to  the  scaffold.  The  English  king,  George  III, 
went  into  mourning.  All  England,  forgetting  the  ex- 
ecution of  its  own  king,  Charles  I,  long  before,  was 


from  an  ola  print 

THE  KING  OF  FRANCE  SEIZED  BY  A  MOB 


304  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

alarmed.  In  February,  1793,  France  and  England  were 
at  war.  As  the  revolution  was  in  grave  danger  of  being 
crushed  by  outside  enemies  and  by  the  factions  within 
France,  the  convention  put  all  power  into  the  hands  of 
a  committee  known  as  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 
For  more  than  two  years,  France  was  governed  by 


From  an  old  print 

THE  TRIAL  OF  Louis  XVI 

a  small  minority  of  men  who  ruled  with  an  iron  hand. 
This  period  is  called  the  Reign  of  Terror.  Hundreds  of 
royalists  were  executed  with  scarcely  the  semblance  of 
a  trial.  Moderate  men,  who  hated  bloodshed  and 
were  not  zealous  enough  for  the  revolution,  were  exiled 
or  sent  to  the  scaffold.  Uprisings  of  the  peasants 
against  the  republic  were  stamped  out.  The  clergy, 
who  refused  to  accept  the  new  order,  were  sternly  pun- 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  305 

ished.  Powerful  men  rose  to  leadership  in  swift  suc- 
cession, each  more  radical  than  the  man  before  him. 
Marat,  Danton,  and  Robespierre  each,  in  turn,  led  in 
the  revolution  and  then  perished  on  the  scaffold  or  at 
the  hands  of  an  assassin. 

Meanwhile,  war  was  going  on  with  all  Europe.  In 
spite  of  this,  more  extreme  reforms  were  being  under- 
taken and  a  new  constitution  was  being  drafted.  The 
mass  of  Frenchmen,  who  had  been  denied  the  right  to 
vote  by  the  first  constitution  of  1791,  were  given  this 
right  —  a  thing  that  seemed  very  dangerous  at  that 
time. 

Reaction  against  Terror.  Finally,  the  country  be- 
came sick  of  bloodshed  and  disorder.  A  new  govern- 
ment was  established  in  1795.  It  was  republican  in 
form.  It  was  arranged  that  there  should  be  a  parlia- 
ment consisting  of  two  houses  and  an  executive 
department  composed  of  five  men  called  the  Directory. 
For  four  years  (1795-99)  France  was  governed  under 
this  plan. 

The  Reign  of  Terror  was  over,  but  the  country  was 
still  at  war.  Victory  on  the  battlefield  was  taking  the 
place  of  defeat,  however,  and  the  kings  of  Europe  were 
frightened.  With  republican  armies  launched  on  a 
career  of  conquest  in  Europe,  all  the  monarchs  and 
nobles  and  clergy  trembled  for  their  own  safety.  They 
were  to  have  no  peace  for  twenty  years. 

American  Opinion  on  the  French  Revolution.  Dur- 
ing these  stirring  years  in  France,  a  great  discussion 


306  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

of  the  situation  was  taking  place  in  the  United  States. 
The  Americans  also  were  being  agitated  by  politics 
and  were  dividing  into  two  parties.  The  Federalists 
were  being  formed  under  the  leadership  of  Alexander 
Hamilton  and  the  Republicans  under  Thomas  Jefferson 
(First  Book,  pp.  154-160). 

Hamilton  and  his  followers  did  not  have  great  faith 
in  popular  government.  Few  of  the  Federalists  be- 
lieved in  giving  the  vote  to  men  who  owned  no  prop- 
erty, as  the  French  radicals  had  urged.  Indeed,  the 
Federalists  looked  with  real  alarm  upon  the  spread 
of  French  democratic  ideas.  They  said  that  the  rad- 
icals were  to  blame  for  all  the  disorders  in  France,  and 
they  denounced  the  Jacobins  as  "  anarchists  "'  and 
"  criminals." 

The  followers  of  Jefferson,  on  the  other  hand,  said 
that,  on  the  whole,  the  French  republicans  were  trying 
to  do  the  right  thing.  They  were  sorry  about  the 
reign  of  terror,  but  they  laid  the  blame  rather  on  the 
king's  friends  and  the  nobles  who  wanted  to  overthrow 
the  revolution  and  restore  the  old  order.  The  Jeffer- 
sonians  admitted  that  many  terrible  things  had  been 
done  by  the  revolutionists,  but  they  said  that  most 
of  them  had  been  necessary  in  the  interest  of  the 
people.  They  pointed  to  the  misdeeds  of  Louis  XVI 
and  asserted  that  the  king  and  his  friends  had  brought 
all  the  trouble  on  themselves.  So  Jefferson's  followers 
formed  "  Democratic  "  societies  and  held  banquets 
in  honor  of  the  French  Republic.  They  said  that  the 


THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION  307 

kings  of  England,  Austria,  and  Prussia  were  tyrants 
waging  war  on  republican  France  in  order  to  restore 
the  monarchy. 

The  United  States  Involved.  While  the  people 
debated  theories  of  government,  the  American  govern- 
ment had  practical  problems  to  face.  France,  at  war 
with  England,  called  upon  President  Washington  for 
aid.  France  claimed  that  the  United  States  was  bound 
to  help  her  under  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  1778. 
Many  American  citizens  at  the  same  time  clamored 
for  war  against  England.  President  Washington, 
unmoved  by  all  the  uproar,  declared  that  the  United 
States  would  remain  neutral.  When  the  French 
minister  to  the  United  States  went  about  making 
speeches  in  this  country  to  secure  aid  for  France,  Pres- 
ident Washington  asked  the  French  government  to 
order  him  home.  Under  the  rules  of  war  both  England 
and  France  began  to  search  and  seize  our  ships  and 
goods  on  the  high  seas. 

Very  soon  France  and  the  United  States  were  on 
the  verge  of  war.  President  Adams,  who  followed 
Washington,  sent  a  special  mission  to  Paris  seeking 
peace.  It  was  not  received  with  courtesy,  and  secret 
demands  were  made  upon  it  for  (i)  apologies  for  past 
conduct  and  (2)  money  in  the  form  of  bribes.  President 
Adams  then  told  Congress  about  these  outrageous 
demands,  naming  the  Frenchmen  who  made  them 
simply  as  "  Mr.  X,  Mr.  Y,  and  Mr.  Z." 

This  aroused  the  whole  country.     Even  Jefferson'? 


308  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

party  turned  against  France.  In  fact,  war  on  France 
actually  started  at  sea,  though  it  did  not  last  long. 
A  peace  was  soon  patched  up. 

About  the  same  time,  the  Federalists  tried  to  shut 
out  all  further  French  influence  by  passing  two  severe 
laws,  known  as  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts.  The  first 
of  these  laws  authorized  the  president  to  expel  any 
alien  agitator  from  this  country ;  the  second  laid 
penalties  on  those  who  criticized  the  government  of 
the  United  States.  These  laws  were  bitterly  attacked 
by  the  party  of  Jefferson  and  became  the  subject  of 
violent  dispute  (First  Book,  pp.  159-160). 

The  French  Revolution  and  European  Opinion. 
England  had  alarmed  the  world  by  her  revolution  a 
hundred  years  before.  Now  it  was  the  turn  of  France 
to  terrify  governments  everywhere.  In  England,  it 
is  true,  a  few  leaders  rejoiced  during  the  first  stages 
of  the  French  revolution  and  declared  that  England 
needed  similar  reforms ;  that  her  earlier  revolutions 
had  not  been  democratic  enough.  Most  Englishmen, 
however,  were  up  in  arms  against  everything  French 
and  denounced  as  "  Jacobin  "  anyone  who  proposed 
the  slightest  change  in  the  English  government.  One 
of  them,  Edmund  Burke,  who  had  once  handsomely 
championed  the  cause  of  the  Americans  (First  Book, 
pp.  116-118),  savagely  attacked  the  French  and  de- 
manded a  union  of  kings  to  make  war  on  them. 

King  George's  officers  seized  and  threw  into  prison 
citizens  who  declared  that  the  vote  should  be  given  to 


THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


309 


every  Englishman  whether  he  owned  any  property 
or  not.  "  The  right  of  universal  suffrage,  the  subjects 
of  this  country  never  enjoyed,"  said  one  of  the  king's 
judges,  "  and  were  they  to  enjoy  it,  they  would  not 
long  enjoy  either  liberty  or  a  free  constitution."  Men 
who  expressed  ap- 
proval of  French 
ideas,  even  pri- 
vately, were  liable 
to  be  fined  and  im- 
prisoned. 

In  Austria,  Prus- 
sia, and  Spain,  as 
well  as  in  England, 
the  ruling  classes 
were  thoroughly 
alarmed.  They 
feared  that  revolu- 
tionary ideas  about 
liberty,  democ- 
racy, and  republics 
would  upset  every 
throne  and  destroy 
the  rights  of  the 

nobility  and  the  clergy.  French  popular  leaders  talked 
as  if  the  millennium  had  come.  Kings  and  nobles, 
on  the  other  hand,  thought  the  world  was  crumbling 
into  ruin. 


NAPOLEON  I,  EMPEROR  OF  THE  FRENCH 


310  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

THE  NAPOLEONIC  WARS 

The  Remarkable  Career  of  Bonaparte.  Among  the 
officers  in  the  French  army  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  was  a  young  man  destined  to  become  the 
master  of  France  and  nearly  all  Europe.  His  name  was 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  He  was  only  twenty-three  years 
old  when  Louis  XVI  was  executed  in  1793,  but  in  the 
war  that  soon  followed  he  proved  that  he  was  an  able 
artillery  officer.  In  1795  he  endeared  himself  to  the 
French  government  by  using  his  guns  on  a  crowd  of 
citizens  bent  on  overturning  it. 

The  next  year,  Bonaparte  was  chosen  commander 
of  the  French  army  sent  against  the  Austrians  in  Italy. 
In  one  battle  after  another,  often  against  great  odds, 
Bonaparte  defeated  the  enemy  and  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  all  northern  Italy.  He  astounded  the  world  by 
his  brilliant  exploits. 

Having  beaten  Austria,  he  decided  to  strike  England 
by  attacking  Egypt.  In  this  way  he  threatened  Eng- 
lish trade  in  the  Mediterranean.  He  also  hinted  that 
he  would  go  on  until  he  destroyed  English  rule  in  India. 
Bonaparte  was  readily  victorious  over  the  Turks  in 
Egypt ;  but  his  fleet  was  destroyed  by  the  English  com- 
mander, Nelson,  in  the  famous  battle  of  the  Nile  in  1798. 

Bonaparte  as  Consul  and  Emperor.  As  things  were 
not  promising  in  Egypt,  Bonaparte  hurried  back  to 
France.  In  1799,  with  the  aid  of  soldiers,  he  over- 
threw the  Directory.  Thereupon  he  made  himself 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

head  of  the  government  as  First  Consul  and  reduced 
the  power  of  the  parliament  to  a  shadow.  With  an 
iron  hand,  like  Oliver  Cromwell,  he  put  down  all  oppo- 
sition —  that  of  royalists  and  radicals  alike.  He  said 
that  France  needed  "  order,"  and  he  established  order 


NAPOLEON'S  CARRIAGE 


SO 


by  the  sword.      He  said  that  France  loved  "  glory, 
by  his  conquering  armies  he  gave  her  glory. 

At  the  same  time,  he  steadily  increased  his  own  power. 
In  1802  he  was  made  consul  for  life  instead  of  a  term 
of  years.  Two  years  later,  he  was  made  Emperor  of 
the  French,  and  crowned  himself  with  great  ceremony 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  313 

in  the  beautiful  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  with  the 
pope  looking  on.  He  created  a  new  court  on  the  model 
of  Louis  XVFs  and  founded  a  new  nobility.  He 
strictly  censored  books  and  newspapers.  He  ordered 
editors  not  to  print  news  "  disagreeable  to  France." 
He  required  teachers  in  the  schools  to  praise  his  name 
and  his  deeds  and  to  make  pupils  do  the  same.  France 
had  a  new  despotism,  more  thoroughgoing  than  the 
despotism  of  the  Bourbon  kings  had  been. 

Napoleon's  Conquests.  "  What  the  French  want," 
Napoleon  declared,  "  is  glory.  .  .  .  The  Nation  must 
have  a  head  rendered  illustrious  by  glory  and  not  by 
theories  of  government."  In  keeping  with  this  idea, 
Napoleon  was  at  war,  save  for  a  few  months,  during 
his  entire  rule.  He  found  France  at  war  in  1793, 
and  he  kept  it  up  until  1815  with  only  one  short 
breathing  spell.  By  blows  swift  and  terrible  he  over- 
came the  armies  of  all  nations  massed  against  him. 

By  1810,  Napoleon  was  the  master  of  Europe.  He 
was  Emperor  of  the  French,  King  of  Italy,  and  "  Pro- 
tector "  of  a  league  of  German  states.  The  borders 
of  France  had  been  extended  to  the  Rhine  and  in- 
cluded what  is  now  Belgium  and  Holland.  His  brother 
had  been  placed  on  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  his 
brother-in-law  on  that  of  Naples.  Only  on  the  sea  was 
he  baffled.  There  England's  navy  reigned  supreme. 
Indeed  we  may  look  upon  the  Napoleonic  wars  as  a 
part  of  the  old  commercial  struggle  between  England 
and  France  (p.  268). 


314  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

Napoleon's  Downfall.  When,  in  1812,  Napoleon 
at  last  tried  to  conquer  Russia,  he  made  a  fatal  mis- 
take. He  could  not  fight  against  winter  and  famine. 
So  he  beat  a  hasty  retreat.  All  the  leading  countries 
then  turned  against  him.  He  was  defeated  at  Leipzig 
in  1813.  The  next  year  he  was  sent  into  exile  on 
the  island  of  Elba. 

Once  more  Napoleon  tried  his  fortune.  He  escaped 
from  Elba,  gathered  an  army  about  him,  and  promised 
France  "  peace  and  liberty."  The  kings  of  Europe 
proclaimed  him  an  outlaw.  On  June  18,  1815,  their 
armies,  with  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  lead,  over- 
whelmed Napoleon  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  This 
time  Napoleon  was  sent  far  away  to  St.  Helena,  an 
island  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean.  There  he  was 
guarded  day  and  night  until  his  death  in  1821.  Twenty 
years  later  the  French  brought  his  body  back  home  and 
placed  it  in  an  imposing  tomb  at  Paris,  where  it  rests 
to-day. 

America  and  the  Napoleonic  Wars.  The  long  wars 
between  England  and  France  gave  both  of  them  an 
excuse  to  prey  upon  American  commerce.  French 
cruisers  seized  American  ships  and  goods  bound  to 
England.  The  English  did  the  same  thing  to  ships 
and  goods  bound  for  France.  Still  they  were  not  satis- 
fied. They  searched  American  ships  for  British-born 
sailors,  and  carried  away  some  who  were  really  Ameri- 
can citizens.  All  through  Jefferson's  eight  years  as 
President  seizures  by  the  French  and  the  English  went 


THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


3IS 


316        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

on,  trying  American  patience  to  the  utmost.  Finally, 
in  Madison's  administration,  in  1812,  Congress  declared 
war  on  England,  opening  a  conflict  for  more  than  two 
years  (First  Book,  pp.  181-190). 

One  great  advantage  came  to  the  United  States 
from  the  long  struggle  among  the  European  powers. 
That  Was  the  purchase  of  the  Louisiana  territory  in 
1803.  Napoleon  had  compelled  Spain  to  cede  it  to 
him  three  years  before ;  then,  fearing  that  England 
might  wrest  it  from  him,  he  quickly  sold  it  to  the 
United  States.  So  much  at  least  America  owes  to  the 
career  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

The  Results  of  the  French  Revolution.  When 
Napoleon  was  overthrown,  in  1815,  the  Bourbons  were 
restored  to  the  kingdom  of  France ;  but  the  old  order 
was  not  brought  back  again  with  them.  The  power 
of  the  clergy  and  the  nobility  had  been  badly  broken  ; 
they  never  fully  recovered  their  ancient  position.  The 
king,  moreover,  could  no  longer  make  laws  without 
the  consent  of  a  parliament.  The  age  of  Louis  XVI 
had  passed  forever. 

In  addition,  all  Europe  was  in  ferment  with  new 
ideas.  Everywhere  people  talked  of  the  "  rights  of 
man,"  even  in  distant  Russia.  It  was  said  that  all 
men,  rich  and  poor,  noble  and  common,  should  be 
equal  before  the  law ;  that  men  had  a  right  to  make 
their  own  laws  and  levy  their  own  taxes.  Religious 
toleration  was  widely  accepted  in  theory  and  some- 
what in  practice.  Everywhere  people  talked  of  new 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  317 

things.  Even  the  idea  of  votes  for  women  was  ad- 
vanced. Freedom  of  speech  and  press  lived  on  in 
spite  of  many  difficulties.  The  notion  of  free  public 
schools  had  been  put  forward  during  the  revolution. 
It  was  not  put  into  practice  then,  but  it  continued 
to  live  in  the  minds  of  the  people. 

Feudalism  was  tottering  to  its  final  fall.  Napoleon 
had  abolished  the  rights  of  the  nobility  in  Italy  and 
Spain  by  force  of  arms  and  by  imperial  decrees.  Thou- 
sands of  the  great  estates  owned  by  landlords  were 
broken  up  into  small  farms  tilled  by  their  owners. 
New  "  peasant  democracies  "  began  to  take  the  place 
of  aristocracies. 

Though  attempts  were  made  everywhere  to  undo 
the  effects  of  the  French  revolution,  they  were  not 
successful.  All  western  Europe  was  passing  out  of 
the  feudal  and  clerical  age.  Even  in  Germany  the 
two  or  three  hundred  petty  princes  whom  Napoleon 
overthrew  were  never  restored.  The  Holy  Roman 
Empire  (p.  i66)--long  a  mere  shadow  empire  - 
which  he  destroyed  was  never  called  to  life  again.  The 
rulers  of  Prussia  and  Austria  tried  in  vain  to  stop  the 
spread  of  French  notions  among  their  subjects.  Even 
far-away  Russia  could  not  escape  the  influence  of  the 
French  example.  Though  they  did  their  best,  kings 
and  czars  could  not  blot  out  the  history  of  the  past 
twenty-five  years.  The  day  was  to  come  when  echoes 
of  the  Marseillaise  would  be  heard  in  the  streets  of 
Berlin,  Vienna,  and  St.  Petersburg. 


318        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    Compare  the  condition  of  the  common  people  of  France 
with  that  of  the  common  people  of  England  in  the  early  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century.     Study  the  powers  that  the  French  king 
had  at  that  time  (p.  292)  and  tell  what  bodies  have  these  powers  in 
our  country  to-day.       2.    Compare  the  account  of  French  classes 
(king,  nobility,  and  common  people)  given  in  this  chapter    vith 
the  account  in  chapter  x  of  the  classes  in  England.     In  wnich 
country  were  the  nobles  the  more  powerful  ?     The  clergy  ? 

II.  I.    Why  is  the  first  revolt  of  the  people  against  the  French 
king  called  the  "peaceful  revolution"?     Can  you  think  of  any 
reasons  that  will  explain  why  the  common  people  of  France  began 
their  revolution  with  an  attack  on  the  royal  prison,  the  Bastille  ? 
What  kind  of  prisoners  were  probably  kept  there  ?       2.    How  did 
the  first  two  years  of  the  French  revolution  differ  from  the  first 
two  years  of  the  American  revolution?       3.    Why  were  the  kings 
of  surrounding  nations  anxious  to  see  the  French  king  restored  to 
his  old  position  of  power  ?       4.    England  had  already  made  long 
advances  toward  democracy;  why,  then,  were  the  English  people 
ready  to  make  war  on  the  new  French  republic  ?       5.    In  what 
important  ways  did  the  French  government  between  the  years 
1795-99  differ   from   our  government  to-day?       6.    At  the  out- 
set of  the  French  revolution  many  if  not  most  Americans  were 
sympathetic  with  the  French  people.     Later  there  was  a  strong 
feeling  against  them.     Make  a  list  of  the  reasons  for  this  change 
of  opinion.       7.    What  is  meant  by  "neutrality"  in  war?     Why 
did  Washington  wish  to  have  the  United  States  remain  neutral  in 
the  war  between  the  new  French  republic  and  England  ? 

III.  I.    How  did  it  happen  that  a  young  man  like  Napoleon 
could  come  into  power  so  quickly  ?       2.    Compare  Napoleon  with 
Cromwell   and   with  Washington.     Which  of  the   three   do   you 
admire  the  least,   and  why?     With  what  military  leader  of  the 
ancient  world  would  you  compare  Napoleon  ?       3.    What  reasons 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  319 

can  you  think  of  that  will  explain  why  the  conquest  of  Russia  and 
of  England  was  too  great  a  task  even  for  Napoleon  ?  4.  The 
battle  of  Waterloo  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important,  or 
"  decisive,' '  battles  of  history.  Why  ?  5.  What  were  the  effects 
of  the  Napoleonic  wars  in  America  ?  In  Europe  ? 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

I.  From  the  map  on  p.  312,  find  out  why  the  kings  of  Austria 
and  Prussia,  as  told  on  p.  302,  took  such  interest  in  the  French 
revolution.  2.  By  a  study  of  the  map  just  referred  to,  find  out 
what  modern  nations  were  included  in  the  empire  of  Napoleon 
at  its  greatest  extent.  3.  Locate  Waterloo. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 
FOR  PUPILS 

BIRKHEAD,  ALICE —  The  Story  of  the  French  Revolution;  Crowell. 

DALE  —  Landmarks  of  British  History,  xix. 

DUTTON,  MAUDE  B.  —  Little  Stories  of  France,  pp.  132-171 ;  Amer- 
ican Book. 

FINNEMORE,  J.  —  Peeps  at  History,  France,  x-xv;  Adams  and 
Black. 

MACGREGOR  —  The  Story  of  France,  Ixix-lxxiii. 

MARSHALL  —  A  History  of  France,  Ixxvi-lxxxii. 

MORRIS,  CHARLES  —  Historical  Tales,  France,  xxi  (p.  233),  xxx; 
Lippincott. 

O'NEILL  —  The  Story  of  the  World,  xliii. 

TAPPAN  —  Hero  Stories  of  France,  xxxi. 

VAN  LOON  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  xlvi,  lii-lv. 

FOR   TEACHERS 

ASHLEY,   R.   L.   —  Modern  European   Civilization,   vi-vii ;    Mac- 

millan. 
TARBELL,  IDA  M.  — Napoleon;   Macmillan. 


320        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW  OF  CHAPTERS  IX-XII 

I.  i.    Make  a  list  of  the  most  important  events  that  are  de- 
scribed in  these  four  chapters.     Arrange  these  first  in  the  order 
of  time,  and  then  try  to  rearrange  them  in  what  you  think  to  be 
the  order  of  their  importance.       2.    How  many  years  passed  be- 
tween the  discovery  of  America  and  the  end  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars  ?     On  the  blackboard  draw  a  line  six  feet  long.     Let  the  left 
end  of  the  line  mark  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  and  the  right 
end  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars.    Place  a  mark  at  the  proper 
point  indicating  the  discovery  of  America.     Make  other  marks 
indicating  what  you  consider  to  be  the  most  important  dates  of 
these  two  periods. 

II.  I.    What  great  rights  did  the  common  people  of  Europe 
gain  during  the  period  covered  by  these  four  chapters  ?     In  what 
countries  did  the  common  people  make  the  greatest  progress  during 
this  period  ?     In  what  countries  did  they  make  little  or  no  progress  ? 
2.    Make  a  list  of  the  persons  mentioned  in  these  five  chapters 
who  in  your  judgment  did  the  most  for  their  fellow  men.     Have 
committees  appointed  to  find  out  all  they  can  about  these  men 
and  to  report  to  the  class  the  important  facts  about  their  lives  and 
the  reasons  which  justify  us  in  learning  about    heir  deeds  and 
honoring  their  memories. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  AGE   OF   STEAM  AND   MACHINERY 

The    Slow   Progress    in   Industry   in   Olden   Times. 

All  the  revolutions  in  empires,  kingdoms,  and  republics 
which  filled  the  pages  of  history  down  to  the  eighteenth 
century  made  few  changes  in  the  way  in  which  the 
mass  of  the  people  lived  and  worked.  The  great 
nations  of  antiquity  rose  and  fell ;  city-states  flourished 
and  withered  ;  commercial  towns  sprang  up  and  de- 
cayed ;  Rome  spread  out  her  broad  empire  and  then 
broke  into  pieces;  kings  and  princes  fought  for  centuries 
over  fragments  of  territory ;  constitutions  were  framed 
and  parliaments  created.  All  the  while  the  mass  of 
the  people  in  Europe -- the  peasants  with  their  hoes, 
the  artisans  at  the  forge,  the  women  at  the  loom  - 
went  on  with  their  work  as  usual.  All  the  while  they 
were  using  the  few  crude  and  simple  tools  that  had 
been  invented  in  the  early  days  of  mankind.  Through- 
out their  long  history,  the  English  and  the  French,  like 
the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  had  made  few  improve- 
ments in  the  plow,  the  wagon,  or  the  loom.  Wheat 
was  cut  with  a  sickle  and  threshed  with  a  flail, 
almost  as  in  the  first  days  of  agriculture.  Through 

321 


322  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

the  two  thousand  years  and  more  of  their  progress, 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  made  little  advance  over  the 
crude  methods  of  the  earliest  times.  Indeed,  they 
both  looked  with  scorn  upon  all  hand  labor  and 


Keystone  View  Co..  Inc. 

SPINNING  BY  HAND  IN  JAPAN  TO-DAY 

thought  it  beneath  the  dignity  of  any  educated  person 
to  care  about  making  better  tools  or  making  the  bur- 
den of  toil  lighter  for  human  beings. 

All  during  the  middle  ages,  the  age  of  discovery,  the 
Protestant  Reformation,  and  the  English  political 
revolution,  the  same  ways  of  working  were  continued. 


THE  AGE  OF   STEAM  AND   MACHINERY  323 

When  King  John  was  forced  to  grant  Magna  Carta, 
the  plow  used  in  the  fields  of  England  was  modeled 
on  the  same  lines  as  the  plow  introduced  by  the  Romans 
when  Britain  was  a  province  of  their  empire.  When 
the  Pilgrims  set  sail  for  America  in  1620,  the  women 
of  England  spun  and  wove  cloth  by  hand,  as  their 
ancestors  had  in  the  days  of  King  John.  The  lumbering 
stagecoach  and  the  creeping  sailboat  were  the  chief 
means  of  travel  and  trade.  In  order  to  secure  a  bare 
livelihood,  to  say  nothing  of  comforts  and  luxuries, 
the  masses  had  to  spend  laborious  days  digging,  sowing, 
reaping,  spinning,  and  weaving.  The  sons  and  daugh- 
ters of  peasants  became  peasants  ;  they  lived  and  died 
in  the  village  where  they  were  born.  The  sun  rose  and 
set  with  serene  monotony  on  changeless  days  of  toil. 

A  Sudden  Revolution  in  Industry.  Then  suddenly, 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there  began 
a  series  of  remarkable  inventions  which  in  time  turned 
upside  down  the  old  world  of  peasants  and  artisans. 
New  ways  of  working,  living,  trading,  and  traveling 
were  discovered.  A  new  age  was  opened  —  our  modern 
age  of  steam  and  machinery,  gigantic  factories,  smoky 
industrial  cities,  roaring  furnaces,  thundering  expresses, 
ocean  steamships,  mysterious  electric  instruments,  and 
swift  automobiles  and  airplanes. 

As  time  went  on  the  inventors  worked  faster  and 
faster.  The  man  with  a  hoe,  bowed  by  the  weight 
of  centuries,  was  startled  to  find  a  tractor  driven  up 
beside  him.  Women,  bending  over  their  shuttle  day 


324  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

and  night,  could  not  weave  cloth  fast  enough  by  hand 
to  compete  with  the  flying  shuttle  driven  by  steam  ; 
so  they  were  drawn  forth  by  thousands  to  the  factories 
to  tend  steel  fingers  that  flew  with  lightning  speed 
and  knew  not  weariness.  The  place  of  the  stagecoach 
was  taken  by  the  railway.  The  lazy  sailing  vessel  was 
nosed  aside  by  the  ocean  greyhound  that  sped  over 
the  Atlantic  in  less  than  six  days.  Coal  and  oil  drawn 
from  the  earth  in  huge  quantities  gave  heat  and 
light  for  multitudes  whose  ancestors  for  centuries 
had  shivered  in  darkness. 

The  Idea  of  Progress.  Industrial  events  brought 
changes  in  the  life  of  the  people  as  no  political  events 
had  ever  done.  Peasants  left  the  soil  and  went  into 
industrial  towns  or  across  the  sea  in  search  of  employ- 
ment. Women  and  girls,  for  the  first  time,  worked 
in  factories  and  were  paid  in  money  for  their  labor. 
Millions  learned  to  read  and  write.  The  idea  of  prog- 
ress —  of  endless  improvement  in  the  lot  of  mankind 
-  seized  upon  the  minds  of  humanity.  Those  who 
labored  at  the  plow,  the  forge,  and  the  loom  no  longer 
accepted  in  silence  any  fate  that  befell  them ;  they 
declared  they  would  be  citizens,  voters,  and  architects 
of  their  own  fortunes.  The  age  of  democracy  —  the  age 
of  the  people  —  burst  upon  the  astonished  world. 

This  marvelous  epoch  of  progress  was  opened  by 
obscure  artisans,  mechanics,  and  smiths  who,  with  end- 
less patience  and  in  the  face  of  trials  and  discourage- 
ments, made  one  ingenious  machine  after  another. 


THE  AGE  OF  STEAM  AND  MACHINERY 


325 


They  were  benefactors  of  mankind  who  have  never 
figured  largely  on  the  pages  of  history.  Nevertheless 
they  did  more  to  change  and  improve  the  lot  of  the 
people  than  all  the  generals  and  statesmen  that  ever 


From  an  old  -print 

CARRYING  FREIGHT  IN  ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

lived.  So  great  was  the  change  which  they  wrought 
in  the  life  of  Western  nations  that  it  has  rightly  been 
called  the  industrial  revolution.  In  this  work  of  inven- 
tion, America  did  a  lion's  share. 

STEAM  POWER 

The  Uses  of  Power.     If  you  will  stop  to  think  about 
the  things  you  use  in  daily  life,  you  will  find  that  power 


326 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


has  been  employed  to  fashion  them.  Nothing  can  be 
made  without  the  use  of  some  kind  of  power.  Take, 
for  example,  a  loaf  of  bread.  Power  is  used  to  break 
the  ground,  sow  the  seed,  reap  the  grain,  grind  the 
flour,  and  knead  the  dough.  So  with  everything  we  use. 
In  olden  times  the  power  of  men,  women,  children, 
and  beasts,  of  wind  and  water,  was  used  to  turn  wheels 


From,  an  6ld  print 
AN  ENGLISH  WATER  MILL  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

and  make  goods.  But  animal  and  human  power  is 
limited ;  the  wind  is  fickle ;  and  waterfalls  are  found 
only  in  certain  places.  As  long  as  mankind  had  only 
these  sources  of  power,  the  output  of  goods  was  nec- 
essarily small. 

James  Watt  and  the  Steam  Engine.  In  1736  there 
was  born  in  Scotland  a  genius  who  was  to  place  un- 
limited power  at  the  service  of  mankind.  His  name 


THE  AGE  OF   STEAM  AND  MACHINERY  327 

was  James  Watt.  A  story  is  told  that  he  got  the  idea 
of  using  steam  power  by  watching  the  steam  in  his 
mother's  teakettle  push  the  lid  up.  Unfortunately 
this  pretty  tale  is  a  fiction. 

Long  before  Watt  was  born,  the  power  of  steam  was 
known  and  many  men  had  attempted  to  harness  it. 
The  furnace  and  boiler  had  been  invented  to  generate 
steam.  A  steam  engine  had  been  devised  that  would 
push  a  pump  handle  up  and  down  ;  but  it  was  a  very 
awkward  thing  and  would  not  turn  a  wheel. 

Watt,  who  was  a  skilled  mechanic  at  the  University 
of  Glasgow,  had  in  his  collection  of  models  a  small 
steam  engine  of  the  old,  crude  type.  It  was  while 
working  on  this  machine  that  he  got  the  idea  of  a  better 
engine.  He  made  his  first  invention  in  1765  and  took 
out  his  first  patent  four  years  later. 

Watt  made  two  important  advances.  He  cut  down 
the  waste  of  coal  in  generating  steam  and  he  fixed  the 
engine  so  that  it  would  turn  a  wheel. 

As  he  was  a  poor  man,  he  had  to  form  a  partnership 
with  Boulton,  a  man  of  money,  in  order  to  manufacture 
his  engines.  For  many  years  the  two  men  built  en- 
gines at  Birmingham,  in  England.  Watt  kept  on 
making  improvements  in  the  engine  until  his  death  in 
1819.  Thanks  to  his  labors,  there  was  henceforward 
no  limit  to  the  amount  of  power  for  the  making  of 
goods.  It  is  estimated  that  the  steam  engine  "  has 
added  to  human  power  the  equivalent  of  a  thousand 
million  men." 


328 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


THE  BOYHOOD  OF  JAMES  WATT 


from  an  old  print 


The  Steamship.  Power  is  necessary  for  carrying 
goods  from  place  to  place  as  well  as  for  making  them. 
On  the  sea,  wind  and  oars  had  always  been  used  to 
drive  ships.  On  land,  horses,  asses,  and  oxen  were 
employed  to  drag  carts  and  wagons.  How  slow  those 
old  methods  were  !  How  natural  that  some  one  should 
think  of  using  the  steam  engine  to  drive  ships  and 
wagons  !  Indeed,  other  men  in  Europe  and  America  were 
already  thinking  about  it  when  Watt  took  out  his 
first  patent.  It  so  happened  that  the  honor  of  making 
the  first  successful  steamboat  was  won  by  an  American, 


THE  AGE  OF   STEAM  AND  MACHINERY 


329 


Robert  Fulton  (First  Book,  pp.  221-224).  It  was  'm  the 
year  1807  that  he  sent  his  steamboat,  the  Clermont,  up 
the  Hudson  River  and  back  again.  This  was  a  great 
triumph  for  Fulton,  but  it  is  due  to  truth  to  say  that 
a  part  of  the  honor  belongs  to  Watt.  Fulton  used  in 
the  Clermont  a  steam  engine  made  by  Watt  and  Boulton 
at  Birmingham.  In  fact,  Fulton  had  visited  England 
himself  and  had  learned  much  there  about  the  use  of 
steam.  He  tried  to  interest  the  great  Napoleon  in 


Natural  History  Museum 
MODEL  OF  AN  EARLY  PADDLEBOAT  MADE  YEARS  BEFORE  THE  Clermont 

his  ideas  before  he  found  help  in  the  United  States. 
The  Steam  Railway.  While  Watt  and  Fulton  were 
busy  with  their  machines,  other  men  were  at  work 
trying  to  apply  steam  to  driving  wagons.  The  very 
year  in  which  Watt  took  out  his  first  patent,  a  French 
inventor,  Cugnot,  made  a  steam  wagon  which  carried 
four  persons  along  a  road  at  the  rate  of  a  little  over 
two  miles  an  hour.  An  engine  built  according  to  his 
plans  in  1770  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  industrial  mu- 
seum in  the  city  of  Paris  A 


330        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

A  few  years  later  a  workman  in  the  shops  of  Watt 
and  Boulton  in  Birmingham  made  a  small  steam  car- 
riage which,  we  are  told,  ran  a  mile  or  two  carrying  "  a 
poker,  a  fire  shovel,  and  a  pair  of  tongs."  In  1804,  a 
Cornish  engineer,  Richard  Trevithick,  built  in  Wales 
a  locomotive  which  drew  along  a  tramway  five  wagons 
with  a  thirteen-ton  load  at  the  rate  of  five  miles  an 
hour.  Likewise  in  other  parts  of  Great  Britain,  other 
inventors  were  busy  with  the  idea  of  steam  locomotion. 

In  1825,  there  was  built  in  the  north  of  England  the 
first  public  steam  railway  in  the  world,  running  from 
Stockton  to  Darlington,  a  distance  of  about  twenty 
miles.  George  Stephenson  planned  and  drove  the 
first  locomotive  over  the  line.  With  the  completion 
of  the  Manchester  and  Liverpool  system  in  1830,  the 
age  of  steam  railways  was  begun.  Within  twenty-five 
years,  the  principal  cities  of  western  Europe  had  rail 
connections  with  one  another.  George  Stephenson 
was  praised  as  one  of  the  first  inventors  of  all  times. 
In  truth,  however,  a  great  deal  of  credit  for  patient 
experiments  belonged  also  to  other  men  who  failed  to 
make  a  business  success  of  their  locomotives. 

THE  INVENTION  OF  MACHINERY 

Old  Ways  of  Spinning.  While  James  Watt  was 
improving  the  steam  engine  to  take  the  place  of  human 
power,  other  inventors  were  making  machines  to  take 
the  place  of  arms  and  fingers.  The  earliest  of  these 


THE  AGE  OF   STEAM  AND  MACHINERY 


331 


inventions  were  in  the  textile   industry  ;    that   is,    for 
spinning  yarn  and  weaving  cloth. 

From  ancient  times  woolen  threads  had  been  spun 
by  hand.  The  spinner  placed  a  bunch  of  wool  on  a 
stick  known  as  a  distaff  *,  drew  out  a  few  fibers,  twisted 
them  together,  and  attached  them  to  a  stone  called 
the  whorl.  The  whorl  was  then  given  a  sharp  stroke 
and  allowed  to  drop  down,  turning  rapidly  around. 
When  a  few  feet  were  spun  the  thread  was  wound  on  a 
stick  and  the  process  of  drawing  and  twisting  repeated. 
As  you  may  imagine,  it  was  slow  and  tedious  work. 
The  spinning  wheel,  which  came  into  use  in  the 
later  middle  ages,  was  a  vast  improvement  on  the 
distaff  ;  yet  it  too  was  slow.  The  spinner  could  spin 
only  one  thread  at  a 
time. 

The  Old-Fashioned 
Loom.     Weaving  was 


also  done  by  hand. 
The  weaver  fastened 
stout  threads,  called 
the  warp,  in  parallel 
rows  on  a  round  pole 
and  attached  the  loose 
ends  to  a  second  pole. 
The  poles  were  then 
fastened  a  few  feet 
apart,  thus  stretching 
out  three  or  four  feet 


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IMUOIMHUHMMMIIMHHH 
IHHIIMMHMMHIIHMMMIOIHMHMIII 
HMMMMHHMMMMMMWMHMHMMMM 


Natural  History  Museum 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  now  WEAVING  Is  DONE 


332  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

of  the  warp.  The  weaver  took  finer  thread,  called  the 
weft,  and  wound  it  on  a  stick  or  shuttle.  All  was  now 
ready  for  weaving.  The  shuttle  was  pushed  in  and 
out  between  the  threads  of  warp.  Forward  and  back 
went  the  shuttle  lacing  the  weft  with  the  warp  and 
making  cloth.  The  hand  loom  generally  in  use  in  the 
eighteenth  century  was  little  more  than  a  wooden  frame 
for  holding  the  warp  in  place  while  the  weaver  oper- 
ated the  shuttle. 

The  Spinning  Jenny.  At  the  very  time  when  James 
Watt  was  making  his  first  improvements  in  the  steam 
engine,  a  clever  mechanic  at  Blackburn,  England, 
James  Hargreaves,  was  working  on  a  machine  for  spin- 
ning several  threads  at  once.  About  1767,  two  years 
before  Watt's  first  patent,  Hargreaves  built  a  machine 
which  he  called  a  "jenny"  (perhaps  after  his  wife). 
His  machine  had  eight  spindles  instead  of  one  and 
could  be  operated  easily  by  a  child. 

The  Factory  System.  A  year  later  an  English  barber, 
Richard  Arkwright,  took  out  a  patent  for  another 
spinning  machine.  He  made  several  of  them  and 
drove  them  all  by  a  water  wheel.  For  this  reason  he 
is  called  "  the  father  of  the  factory  system."  By  this 
time  scores  of  mechanics  were  trying  to  perfect  the 
spinning  jenny.  At  last  there  was  built  a  machine 
which  spun  several  hundred  threads  at  a  time  and 
required  the  attention  of  merely  one  or  two  boys  or 
girls  to  mend  the  threads  when  they  broke. 

The  Power  Loom.     The  invention  of  the   spinning 


THE  AGE  OF  STEAM  AND  MACHINERY 


333 


machine,  of  course,  increased  immensely  the  output  of 
yarn.  The  weavers  then  had  to  "  speed  up."  It  was 
not  strange,  therefore,  that  inventors  should  think 
of  improving  the  old-fashioned  and  slow  hand  loom. 
Indeed,  as  early  as  1738  an  English  mechanic,  John 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

GLIMPSE  OF  A  MODERN  SPINNING  MACHINE  IN  A  FACTORY 

Kay,  hit  upon  the  idea  of  driving  the  shuttle  to  and  fro 
by  means  of  a  lever  or  handle  attached  to  the  loom. 

For  nearly  fifty  years  no  other  important  improve- 
ments were  made.  Then,  just  as  the  American  revolu- 
tion was  coming  to  a  close,  an  English  clergyman, 


334  °UR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Edmund  Cartwright,  began  to  work  on  a  loom  that 
could  be  driven  by  power.  By  1787,  he  had  his  machine 
in  operation.  It  was  a  cumbersome  affair,  at  first, 
but  year  after  year  it  was  improved  and  refined.  At 
length  a  loom  was  perfected  that  would  throw  the 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

A  MODERN  LATHE  TO  TURN  HEAVY  IRON  WORK 

shuttle  to  and  fro  four  hundred  times  a  minute  and 
weave  the  most  complicated  patterns. 

Iron  and  Steel.  When  the  age  of  invention  opened, 
the  methods  employed  in  making  iron  were  almost  as 
crude  as  in  Caesar's  day.  Charcoal  was  used  to  melt 
the  ore,  and  hand  bellows  to  furnish  the  blast  for  the 


THE  AGE  OF   STEAM  AND  MACHINERY  335 

very  hot  fire  required.  Small  pieces  of  iron  were 
tempered  into  steel  by  a  slow  hand  process.  As  long 
as  such  tedious  methods  lasted,  invention  in  other  fields 
was  limited,  for  machines  are  nearly  all  made  of  iron 
and  steel.  Without  them,  there  .could  be  no  railways, 
steamships,  or  steam  engines,  to  say  nothing  of  spinning 
jennies,  looms,  and  a  thousand  other  useful  machines. 

The  situation  was  fully  understood  by  many  inven- 
tors, and  about  1750  they  started  a  revolution  in  the 
iron  industry.  At  that  time  coal  was  first  applied  to 
smelting  iron  ore.  In  a  few  years  the  bellows  were 
thrown  away  and  the  blast  was  furnished  by  compressed 
air  from  iron  cylinders.  Within  forty  years,  the  steam 
engine  was  harnessed  to  drive  the  air-blast  machine. 
In  the  course  of  time,  hot  air  was  substituted  for  cold 
air,  and  a  way  was  discovered  for  changing  iron  into 
steel  in  immense  quantities  as  it  poured  from  the  fur- 
nace. 

The  Flood  of  Inventions.  As  soon  as  the  human 
mind  was  turned  to  invention,  there  seemed  to  be  no 
limit  to  its  powers.  The  Greek  philosophers  had 
scorned  the  practical  arts  ;  the  modern  nations  glorified 
them.  Every  year  the  patent  offices  of  the  European 
countries  had  to  make  room  for  new  contrivances. 

From  America,  Europe  borrowed  the  telegraph  and 
telephone  (First  Book,  pp.  228-231).  The  idea  of  a 
cable  under  the  Atlantic  Ocean  was  also  American,  but 
European  capitalists  helped  to  realize  it  in  1866.  In 
many  fields  Americans  and  Europeans  exchanged  ideas. 


336 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


They  learned  from  and  taught  each  other.     Invention 
became  international. 

Every  branch  of  industry  and  agriculture  was  trans- 
formed by  machinery  and  steam.  The  inventor  tri- 
umphed over  Nature.  He  harnessed  her  power  to  turn 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 
VIEW  OF  AN  IRON  FOUNDRY  IN  ENGLAND 

his  wheels.  He  devised  millions  of  supple  fingers  to 
take  the  place  of  human  ones.  He  discovered  a  real 
fairyland  of  science.  At  the  touch  of  his  magic  wand, 
cloth,  knives,  forks,  spoons,  plates,  cups,  saucers,  shoes, 
lumber,  nails,  typewriters,  sewing  machines,  reapers, 


THE  AGE  OF  STEAM  AND  MACHINERY  337 

automobiles,  telephones,  telegraph  instruments,  loco- 
motives, and  electric  lights  flowed  in  avalanches  from 
his  giant  factories.  So  it  became  possible  for  the 
masses  to  have  comforts  and  even  luxuries  once  denied 
to  kings  and  princes.  Surely  the  inventor  deserves 
a  place  in  history  as  well  as  the  warrior  and  the  politi- 
cian. 

THE  MEANING  OF  THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 

The  Era  of  the  Business  Men.  Before  the  age  of 
;>team  and  machinery,  agriculture  was  the  chief  occu- 
pation of  the  people;  landlords  and  clergy  were  the 
leading  men  of  affairs.  As  we  have  seen,  these  men 
held  the  high  offices  in  the  government  under  the  king's 
authority.  They  directed  the  thought  and  labor  of  the 
people.  Commerce,  it  is  true,  called  into  being  a  large 
class  of  merchants  ;  but  as  long  as  the  goods  were  made 
only  by  hand,  the  opportunities  for  trade  were  limited. 

With  the  age  of  Watt  and  Fulton  came  the  modern 
business  men.  They  raised  the  money  for  factories 
and  machines,  organized  industries,  and  brought  to- 
gether hosts  of  workers.  They  planned  railroads  and 
steamship  lines.  They  searched  the  four  corners  of 
the  earth  for  markets  in  which  to  sell  the  goods  they 
manufactured.  They  advertised  and  "  pushed  "  their 
wares,  putting  new  things  before  the  people,  creating 
new  wants,  and  so  making  fresh  business  all  the  time. 

Ever  alive  to  chances  for  greater  profits,  the  business 
man  discarded  old  methods,  "  boosted  "  new  ideas, 


338  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

and  encouraged  " progress."  The  medieval  merchant 
had  been  a  man  of  progress  as  compared  with  the 
landlord ;  but  the  business  man  put  all  the  drive  of  a 
steam  engine  into  "  making  things  move."  The  ox 
cart,  the  hand  loom,  the  sickle,  and  the  flail  were  made 
obsolete  by  his  railway,  power  loom,  reaper,  and  thresh- 
ing machine.  Through  their  energy,  their  wealth,  and 
their  ingenuity  the  business  men  became  more  powerful 
than  the  clergy  and  nobility  put  together. 

The  Industrial  Workers.  The  steam  engine  and 
machinery  also  changed  vitally  the  position  of  working 
people.  In  olden  times,  when  tools  were  simple  and 
cheap  and  operated  mainly  by  hand  power,  every 
enterprising  young  man  could  look  forward  to  the  day 
when  he  would  own  a  set  of  tools  and  be  his  own  master. 
It  is  true  that  a  clever  mechanic  sometimes  gathered 
several  hand  looms  under  a  single  roof  and  hired  em- 
ployees to  operate  them.  Still  there  was  little  to  be 
gained  by  this.  Goods  could  not  be  made  more  cheaply. 
As  long  as  weaving  was  done  by  hand,  the  loom  was 
usually  found  in  the  home  and  all  the  family  took  part 
in  making  cloth. 

With  the  coming  of  steam  and  machinery,  hand  tools 
were  driven  out  of  business.  The  slow  and  weary 
arms  of  men  and  women  could  not  compete  with  the 
swift  and  tireless  steam  engine.  Therefore,  in  place 
of  the  small  shop  there  came  the  vast  factory.  Work- 
ing people  —  men,  women,  and  children -- went  out 
of  their  homes  to  tend  machines  in  huge  mills.  They 


THE  AGE  OF  STEAM  AND  MACHINERY 


339 


340  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

no  longer  owned  the  tools  with  which  they  worked. 
They  were  employees  of  the  men  who  furnished  the 
capital  to  buy  the  machinery.  They  could  seldom 
expect  to  become  employers  themselves. 

Thus  there  grew  up  in  Europe  a  large  class  of  people 
who  did  not  own  land  or  tools  and  who  depended  for 
a  livelihood  upon  the  sale  of  their  labor  to  factory 
owners.  In  order  to  increase  their  wages  and  reduce 
their  hours  of  work,  employees  in  the  leading  trades 
formed  trade  unions.  So  the  working  classes  drew 
together.  Many  strikes  and  long  contests  between 
employers  and  employees  resulted  from  the  efforts  of 
trade  unionists  to  better  their  lot. 

The  Growth  of  Industrial  Cities.  All  through  an- 
tiquity and  the  middle  ages,  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  lived  in  the  country  and  worked  on  the  land. 
At  the  time  of  the  French  revolution,  perhaps  nine 
tenths  of  the  people  of  Europe  were  peasants  or  arti- 
sans living  in  small  villages. 

The  steam  engine  and  machinery  made  a  revolution 
in  their  lives.  The  factory  was  a  great  magnet  which 
drew  men  and  women  and  children  into  the  towns. 
Important  centers  of  trade  and  industry  became  gi- 
gantic cities.  At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century 
most  of  the  people  of  England  were  city  dwellers. 
Ancient  Rome  at  the  height  of  her  glory  had  about 
five  or  six  hundred  thousand  inhabitants ;  modern 
London  has  about  seven  millions.  Within  a  radius  of 
thirty  miles  of  Manchester  there  were,  in  1920,  about 


THE   AGE  OF   STEAM   AND   MACHINERY  341 

fifteen  million  people,  nearly  all  employed  in  factories, 
mines,  and  shops. 

Industrial  Panics.  These  huge  industrial  cities  were 
helpless  without  trade.  They  could  grow  no  food  or 
raw  materials,  like  wheat  or  cotton,  for  themselves. 
If  business  was  poor,  factories  were  shut  down  and 
working  people  were  unemployed.  The  peasants  in 
the  country  usually  had  something  to  eat  and  wear. 
They  could  produce  these  things  for  themselves  if  they 
could  not  buy  them.  The  industrial  workers  in  the 
towns,  on  the  contrary,  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  market. 
If  the  demand  for  cloth  or  shoes  fell  off,  there  was  a 
falling  off  in  the  demand  for  labor  to  make  them. 
About  every  ten  or  fifteen  years  during  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  cities  of  Europe  suffered  from  a  panic 
and  bad  business  conditions.  Thousands  were  unem- 
ployed and  driven  into  poverty.  Certainly  the  lot 
of  many  industrial  workers  was  not  to  be  envied  by  the 
peasants  on  the  land. 

The  Contest  of  Industry  and  Agriculture.  After  the 
invention  of  the  steam  engine,  industry  steadily  gained 
in  importance  as  compared  with  agriculture  —  that 
is,  in  the  number  of  people  employed,  the  money  in- 
vested, and  the  profits  made.  As  England  was  the 
original  home  of  the  industrial  revolution,  so  England 
took  the  lead  as  an  industrial  nation.  By  the  end  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  four  fifths  of  the  English  people 
were  engaged  in  factories,  shops,  offices,  mines,  and 
warehouses,  and  lived  in  cities  ;  only  one  fifth  remained 


342 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


THE  AGE  OF   STEAM   AND   MACHINERY  343 

in  agriculture.  Germany  stood  next  with  two  thirds 
of  her  people  in  industrial  and  business  pursuits  and 
one  third  on  the  soil.  France  was  about  equally  divided 
between  town  and  country.  In  Italy,  Austria,  and 
parts  of  Russia,  industry  was  growing  steadily,  but  not 
as  rapidly  as  in  western  Europe. 

In  fact,  in  northern,  eastern,  and  southern  Europe  ag- 
riculture held  its  own  during  the  nineteenth  century  as 
the  chief  occupation  of  the  masses.  There  the  tillers 
of  the  soil,  with  a  few  machines  to  help  them,  worked 
the  land  with  hoes  and  spades  as  their  forefathers 
had  done  in  the  middle  ages. 

In  many  places,  especially  Ireland,  Italy,  Poland, 
Russia,  and  Hungary,  the  land  was  not  divided  into 
small  farms  but  was  mainly  held  in  great  estates  by 
rich  landlords.  Serfdom  had  practically  disappeared 
by  1861,  but  millions  of  European  peasants  did  not 
own  any  land.  The  landlords  would  not  break  up 
and  sell  their  estates.  So  the  peasants  were  not  able 
to  buy  land.  They  had  to  work  as  renters  or  day 
laborers,  if  they  found  work  at  all.  As  their  num- 
bers multiplied,  it  became  more  and  more  difficult  to 
find  employment.  There  were  few  factories  in  those 
countries  and,  as  time  went  on,  the  working  people 
had  to  search  far  and  wide  for  opportunities  to  earn 
a  livelihood. 

Resulting  Migration.  Amid  these  changing  condi- 
tions, the  fixed  ways  of  living  common  in  the  middle 
ages  were  broken  up.  Peasants  whose  ancestors 


344  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

had  lived  undisturbed  in  their  native  villages  for  a 
thousand  years  were  drawn  into  industrial  towns. 
Millions  of  working  men  and  women  began  to  move 
to  and  fro.  Artisans  in  search  of  employment  or  seek- 
ing to  improve  their  lot  went  from  city  to  city. 

At  the  same  time  migration  from  nation  to  nation 
set  in  on  a  large  scale.  Peasants  from  all  parts  of 
Europe  went  across  the  sea  in  throngs  to  find  homes  in 
North  America,  South  America,  or  Australia.  More- 
over, there  were  constant  changes  in  migration  itself. 
As  industries  multiplied  in  England  and  Germany, 
for  example,  the  growing  populations  of  the  rural 
districts  found  work  in  neighboring  factories.  English 
and  German  migration  to  America,  therefore,  fell  off 
until  by  1890  it  had  dwindled  to  a  small  stream. 

By  that  time,  however,  the  emigration  to  the  United 
States  from  the  farming  regions  of  Scandinavia,  Italy, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  eastern  Europe  generally,  as 
well  as  from  Ireland,  had  become  very  large.  Of  the 
1,058,000  Europeans  who  entered  the  United  States 
in  1914,  one  of  the  years  of  heaviest  immigration,  more 
than  one  half  were  from  Italy,  Austria-Hungary, 
Ireland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway.  Whoever 
would  understand  America  to-day,  therefore,  must  look 
across  the  ocean  to  the  lands  whence  came  so  many 
million  citizens. 

The  Influence  of  the  Railways.  By  connecting  the 
chief  cities  of  the  same  country,  the  railways  built 
up  national  trade.  They  enabled  certain  districts  to 


THE  AGE  OF  STEAM  AND  MACHINERY 


345 


engage  in  iron  or  cloth  manufacture  and  to  rely  upon 
other  sections  for  food  and  fuel.  The  most  backward 
and  out-of-the-way  places  were  brought  into  touch 
with  the  most  progressive  business  centers.  For  ex- 
ample, a  Frenchman  from  the  north  of  France,  who 


View  Co.,  Inc. 
AN  AMERICAN  LOCOMOTIVE  READY  FOR  SHIPMENT  TO  CHINA 

had  scarcely  ever  seen  a  Frenchman  from  Marseilles, 
could  now  make  a  journey  to  that  city  in  about  fifteen 
hours.  Newspapers  could  be  carried  quickly  from  one 
section  to  another ;  they  helped  to  give  the  people  a 
larger  outlook  and  to  overcome  local  jealousies.  In  a 


346        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

word,  railways  tended  to  unite  all  parts  of  the  same 
nation  and  to  foster  the  spirit  of  nationalism  (see 
below,  p.  354). 

Then  the  railways  overleaped  national  boundaries. 
The  railway  companies  of  different  nations  arranged 
to  run  cars  from  one  country  to  another,  and  indeed 
across  many  countries.  Long  before  the  end  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  it  was  possible  to  take  a  through 
car  from  Paris  to  Berlin  and  St.  Petersburg,  or  from 
Paris  to  Rome,  or  from  Paris  to  Milan,  Venice,  Athens, 
or  Constantinople.  When  larger  and  larger  engines 
were  built,  the  speed  was  increased  until  the  journey 
from  Paris  to  Constantinople  could  be  made  in  three 
days.  It  took  Caesar's  legions  more  than  a  month 
to  march  from  Rome  to  Paris  ;  the  steam  locomotive 
can  make  the  trip  easily  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Railways  thus  became  important  factors  in  extending 
trade  and  preparing  for  war.  The  Germans,  for 
example,  planned  a  long  line  extending  from  Berlin 
to  Constantinople  and  Bagdad.  This  was  to  bind 
Turkey  and  western  Asia  into  a  close  union  with  central 
Europe.  In  this  way,  the  Germans  hoped  to  draw 
to  themselves  much  of  the  trade  that  had  once  been 
carried  by  British  merchant  ships.  The  English  were 
equally  busy  with  plans  for  a  railway  line  from  Cairo, 
Egypt,  to  Cape  Town  far  away  at  the  southern  tip  of 
Africa.  At  the  same  time,  Germany,  France,  and  Russia 
were  building  railway  lines  to  their  frontiers.  These 
were  to  be  used  in  sending  forward  troops  and  supplies 


347 


348  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

in  case  of  war.  So  the  railway,  which  helped  so  much 
to  unite  nations,  also  served  to  divide  them  and  prepare 
them  for  war  on  a  vast  scale. 

The  Influence  of  the  Steamship.  The  steamship 
brought  about  quick,  safe,  and  cheap  communication 
between  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  earth.  Thus 
millions  of  Europeans  were  enabled  to  use  tea,  coffee, 
sugar,  and  other  tropical  products  for  the  first  time. 
Great  manufacturing  districts,  such  as  those  around 
Manchester  in  England,  came  to  depend  upon  raw 
cotton  bought  in  Egypt  and  the  United  States  and 
upon  the  sale  of  their  cloth  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Equally  important  was  the  effect  of  the  steamship 
on  emigration  to  the  United  States.  In  colonial  times, 
a  European  workman  often  had  to  bind  himself  to 
labor  for  a  term  of  at  least  five  years  to  pay  his  passage 
to  America  (First  Book,  p.  76).  Toward  the  end  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  steerage  fare  from  Liverpool 
to  New  York  sometimes  fell  as  low  as  $25.  At  the 
most,  not  more  than  a  few  weeks'  labor  served  to  pay 
the  cost  of  the  voyage.  Consequently  millions  of  the 
poorest  people  of  Europe  came  to  America.  More- 
over, the  steamship  companies  were  always  bidding 
against  one  another  to  get  passengers.  They  sent 
advertisements  and  agents  into  the  highways  and  by- 
ways of  Europe ;  they  offered  special  favors  to  all  who 
would  buy  tickets  to  America.  So  the  stream  of  mi- 
gration swelled  with  the  passing  years. 

Cheap    passenger    rates  also    had    another    striking 


THE  AGE  OF  STEAM  AND  MACHINERY  349 

effect  upon  migration.  In  the  old  days  when  the 
voyage  was  so  costly,  those  who  went  to  America  went 
to  stay.  When  the  cost  of  their  passage  fell  to  $25  or 
$30,  thousands  of  Europeans  went  to  the  United  States 
merely  to  make  money.  After  they  had  made  it,  they 
returned  home  and  bought  land  for  themselves.  More- 
over, thousands  went  back  and  forth,  having  no  fixed 


A  GREAT  TRANS-ATLANTIC  STEAMSHIP 

home  anywhere.  This  meant  that  the  United  States 
acquired  many  residents  and  workers  who  were  not 
citizens -- many  residents  who  cared  little  about  the 
fate  of  America  and  a  great  deal  about  making  money 
out  of  America  in  a  hurry. 

The  steamship  also  introduced  new  and  serious 
elements  into  warfare.  It  brought  closer  together 
countries  that  were  once  separated  by  journeys  of 


350  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

weeks  or  months.  A  steamship  can  now  cross  the 
Atlantic  in  less  time  than  it  took  George  Washington 
to  go  from  Philadelphia  to  Cambridge,  in  1776,  to  take 
command  of  the  American  army.  The  very  fact  of  being 
brought  so  close  to  Europe  has  made  warfare  at  sea 
more  serious  than  ever.  Nations  have  grown  to  de- 
pend heavily  upon  trade  by  sea  and  upon  food  brought 
in  ships.  When  war  occurs,  the  country  with  the 
strongest  navy  can  cut  off  the  trade  and  the  food  of 
its  enemies.  This  is  what  Great  Britain  did  to  France 
during  the  Napoleonic  wars  and  to  Germany  during  the 
World  War  that  opened  in  1914.  So  sea  power  has 
become  one  of  the  mighty  factors  in  shaping  the  world's 
history.  It  was  a  great  factor  in  the  day  of  the  sailing 
vessel.  It  is  greater  still  in  the  day  of  the  steamship. 

The  Contest  for  Natural  Resources.  Besides  mak- 
ing all  these  changes  in  the  life  of  the  peoples  of  Europe, 
steam  and  machinery  added  fresh  sources  of  dispute 
among  nations.  In  ancient  times  'and  in  the  middle 
ages,  the  masses  of  the  people  lived  on  bread,  wine, 
and  olive  oil.  They  had  only  a  few  simple  garments, 
and  they  usually  slept  on  piles  of  straw.  Their  wants 
were  supplied  from  materials  at  hand.  Bread  came 
from  the  fields  and  cloth  from  the  backs  of  sheep. 
Each  community  and  each  nation  met  nearly  all 
its  own  needs  and  did  not  depend  very  much  on  its 
neighbors. 

With  the  invention  of  the  steam  engine  and  machin- 
ery, this  local  independence  came  to  an  end.  Few 


THE   AGE  OF   STEAM   AND   MACHINERY  351 

nations  have  all  the  raw  materials  used  in  their  indus- 
tries. If  a  nation  does  not  have  iron  and  coal,  at  least, 
it  lacks  the  chief  elements  of  industrial  success.  It 
must  either  get  these  things  by  trade  or  obtain  ter- 
ritory in  which  they  are  to  be  found.  For  this 
reason,  Germany  reached  out  to  get  possession  of 
French  iron  mines  in  Alsace-Lorraine.  England  likewise 
reached  out  to  get  petroleum  in  Mesopotamia  and 
coal  in  China.  Modern  industry,  therefore,  with  its 
need  of  vast  supplies  of  raw  materials  made  great 
changes  in  the  relations  of  nations,  just  as  it  changed 
the  relations  of  people  within  each  nation.  Nations 
that  had  formerly  fought  for  territory  to  be  tilled  by 
their  peasants  or  pastured  by  their  flocks,  now  be- 
gan to  fight  for  territory  on  account  of  the  wealth  that 
lay  beneath  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  Preceding   chapters   have   told   of   the    English   revolution, 
the  American  revolution,  and  the  French  revolution.     We  have 
learned  that  such  revolutions  are  called  "political."     The  present 
chapter  tells  about   the    "industrial    revolution."      In  what   im- 
portant ways  did  the  industrial  revolution  differ  from  the  polit- 
ical   revolutions  ?     In    what    way    did   the    industrial    revolution 
differ    from    the    earlier   "religious"  revolution  (see  chapter  ix)  ? 

II.  i.    Make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  power  that  are  now 
used.     Which  of  these  were  used  by  primitive  men  (chapter  ii)  ? 
Which  were   used  by   the  Romans?       2.    In  what  way  did  the 
invention   of  the   steam  engine   "place  unlimited   power   at  the 
service  of  mankind"  ?       3.    Why  is  Watt's  name  so  much  better 
known  than  are  the  names  of  the  inventors  who  first  used  steam 


352        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

power  to  operate  pumps  ?  4.  Can  you  think  of  any  reasons  that 
will  explain  why  the  use  of  steam  was  at  first  much  more  successful 
in  moving  boats  on  the  water  than  in  moving  cars  on  the  land  ? 
5.  Compare  the  work  of  Watt,  Fulton,  and  Stephenson.  Of 
the  three,  whom  do  you  regard  as  rendering  the  greatest  service, 
and  why  ? 

III.  I.    What  progress  had  been  made  in  spinning  and  weaving 
before  the  use  of  steam  power  ?     The  earliest  textile  mills  were 
operated  by  water  power.     Is  water  power  still  used  for  this  pur- 
pose ?     (Find  from  your  geographies  where  the  important  centers 
of  textile  manufacturing  in  America  are  now  located.)     In  what 
way  did  the  introduction  of  steam  power  help  the  textile  industry  ? 
2.    How  did  the  increased  use  of  machinery  increase  the  demand 
for  iron  and  steel  ?     What  improvements  were  made  in  the  pro- 
duction  of   iron   and   steel   because   of   this   demand?       3.    This 
chapter  has  dealt  in    part   with  three   great   topics  :    the    appli- 
cation of  steam  power  to  transportation  by  sea  and  land ;    the 
development  of  the  textile  industry  through  improved  machinery 
and  the  use  of  power ;    the  development  of  the  iron  and  steel  in- 
dustry.    Think  of  the  various  ways  in  which  these  three  kinds  of 
progress  helped  one  another. 

IV.  I.    Tell  why,  after  the  industrial  revolution,  the  "business 
man  became   more  powerful   than  the   clergy  and   nobility  com- 
bined."      2.    In  what  ways  did  the   workers  benefit   by  the   in- 
dustrial revolution  ?     In  what  ways  were  they  perhaps  as  badly 
off  as  they  were  before?     How  did  they  try  to  better  their  con- 
dition?      3.    How   did    the  industrial    revolution  make    possible 
the  growth  of  great  cities  ?     Why  was  it  impossible  for  these  huge 
cities  to  grow  up  before  the  use  of  steam  power  in  transportation  ? 
In  manufacturing  ?       4.    How  does  the  life  of  the  workers  in  the 
great  cities  compare  to-day  with  the  life  of  the  peasants  and  artisans 
during  the  middle  ages?       5.    Locate  on  the  map  facing  p.  436 
the  principal  industrial  countries  of  Europe  to-day.     Locate  the 
principal  agricultural  countries.     From  what  countries  have  most 


THE   AGE  OF   STEAM   AND   MACHINERY  353 

of  the  recent  immigrants  to  the  United  States  come  ?  Why  ? 
6.  In  what  important  ways  in  addition  to  carrying  foodstuffs 
and  manufactured  goods  have  railroads  and  steamships  changed 
modern  life  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

DARROW,    F.    L. —  The    Boy's   Own    Book    of    Great  Inventions; 

Macmillan. 

HOLLAND,  RUPERT  S.  — Historic  Inventions,  iv,  v;   Jacobs. 
MARSHALL,  H.  E.  — An  Island  Story,  xcvi ;    Stokes. 
QUENNELL  —  A  History  of  Everyday  Things  in  England,  II,  iii  to 

p.  166. 

VAN  LOON  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  Ivii,  Iviii,  lix. 
WARREN  —  Stories  from  English  History,  pp.  383-406. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

NATIONALISM   IN  THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

The  Idea  of  Nationalism.  Almost  every  one  has  a 
love  for  the  place  where  he  was  born.  All  persons  are 
likely  to  be  proud  of  their  own  town,  their  state,  their 
country.  .  People  feel  more  fellowship  with  those  that 
speak  their  own  language  and  belong  to  their  own  race 
than  they  do  with  those  who  speak  other  languages  and 
belong  to  other  races.  This  love  of  the  homeland  and 
feeling  of  fellowship  is  the  spirit  of  nationalism.  The 
whole  idea  is  summed  up  in  such  slogans  as  "  Italy  for 
the  Italians"  and  "Poland  for  the  Poles."  It  was 
defined  by  President  Wilson  during  the  World  War  in 
this  manner  :  "  No  people  must  be  forced  to  live  under 
a  sovereignty  under  which  it  does  not  wish  to  live.  No 
territory  must  change  hands  except  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  to  those  who  inhabit  it  a  fair  chance  of  life 
and  liberty." 

Slow  Growth  of  Nationalism  in  Olden  Times.  The 
rulers  of  the  ancient  world  had  no  respect  for  nation- 
alism. Egyptian,  Babylonian,  and  Persian  conquerors 
showed  no  regard  for  races  and  nations  as  such  but 
subdued  them  all  with  equal  severity.  The  Romans 

354 


NATIONALISM   IN  THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY    355 

brought  within  their  broad  empire  the  swarthy  African 
as  well  as  the  fair  Briton.  They  prevented  wars  of 
races  by  uniting  them  all  under  one  rule.  The  Catholic 
Church,  in  many  ways  the  heir  of  the  old  Roman 
empire,  likewise  made  no  distinction  among  nation- 
alities. "  Of  one  blood  are  all  races  of  men,"  ran  the 
language  of  the  Bible ;  so  the  Christian  ideal  was  that 
all  men  should  join  in  one  religious  brotherhood  under 
one  head,  the  pope  at  Rome.  The  very  word  Catholic 
means  "  universal "  or  "  all-embracing."  The  idea  of  the 
Church  was  peace  and  the  union  of  nations  rather  than 
a  sharp  division  of  them  along  lines  of  race  and  language. 

The  Practice  of  European  Kings.  The  Church,  how- 
ever, was  not  strong  enough  to  keep  peace  and  hold 
all  Christendom  together.  As  we  have  seen,  numerous 
kings  and  princes  rose  and  flourished  in  feudal  Europe. 
They  paid  no  more  attention  to  the  "  rights  of  nations  " 
than  did  the  imperial  despots  of  antiquity.  In  their 
numerous  wars  they  were  always  trying  to  bring  new 
subject  races  under  their  swords.  At  peace  settle- 
ments, they  handed  peoples  and  territories  around  as 
if  they  were  so  much  property.  This  was  such  a  com- 
mon practice  that  the  peoples  bartered  and  sold  by 
kings  and  princes  seldom  made  any  protest.  In  fact, 
one  king  was  so  like  another  that  a  change  of  masters 
made  little  difference. 

Western  Europe  Contrasted  with  Central  and  Eastern 
Europe.  As  we  have  seen,  France,  England,  and 
Spain  had  become  nations  by  the  close  of  the  middle 


356  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

ages.  Each  of  them  was  ruled  by  one  king  and  had 
a  national  language  and  literature.  For  hundreds  of 
years,  however,  central  and  eastern  Europe  made  little 
or  no  'advance  in  nationalism.  There  many  a  race 
was  divided  and  ruled  by  different  kings.  There  it 
was  a  common  thing  for  the  same  king  to  have,  as 
his  subjects,  people  of  different  races  and  tongues. 
Germans,  Italians,  Poles,  Czechs,  Serbs,  Rumanians, 
and  many  other  races  were  divided,  handed  about,  and 
ruled  without  any  respect  for  their  wishes. 

The  Settlement  of  1815.  This  treatment  of  races 
was  so  common  that  few  princes  or  governments  ever 
thought  of  changing  it.  When  the  royal  diplomats 
met  in  1815,  after  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon,  they 
showed  no  respect  for  the  rights  of  peoples.  They 
found  the  Germans  divided  among  many  princes,  and 
they  left  them  divided.  They  found  the  Italians  distrib- 
uted among  half  a  score  of  rulers,  and  they  left  them 
about  as  they  were.  They  saw  the  Poles  divided  into 
three  groups,  ruled  by  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  and 
they  made  no  change  in  that  situation.  None  of  these 
royal  agents  thought  of  criticizing  the  czar  for  holding 
down  Finns,  Swedes,  Letts,  and  Poles  by  force.  None 
of  them  dreamed  of  attacking  the  emperor  of  Austria- 
Hungary  for  keeping  nine  distinct  races  under  his 
scepter.  They  thought  him  clever  when  he  took  as  his 
motto  "  Divide  and  rule  "  and  when  he  called  in  one  of 
his  subject  races  to  crush  an  uprising  of  another. 

The  Awakening  of  Nationalism.     On  the  surface  of 


357 


358  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

things  it  appeared  in  1815  as  if  this  old  custom  of  divid- 
ing and  bartering  races  could  go  on  forever.  Soon, 
however,  the  spirit  of  nationalism  began  to  upset  the 
plans  and  confidence  of  kings.  The  idea  of  nationalism 
had  been  deeply  planted  by  the  French  revolutionists 
when  they  boldly  announced  that  the  people,  not  kings, 
had  the  right  to  make  laws  and  levy  taxes.  It  was 
only  a  slight  step  forward  to  declare  that  any  people 
or  race  also  had  the  right  to  choose  its  own  government 
and  governors. 

The  idea  thus  planted  had  been  nourished  by  Napo- 
leon. He  called  on  Italians,  Germans,  and  Spaniards 
to  cast  off  their  kings  and  princes.  At  the  same  time, 
he  himself  acted  like  a  tyrant  toward  them  when  they 
did.  Then  the  Italians  and  Germans  began  to  plan  to 
get  rid  of  him.  It  was  when  all  Germany  lay  pros- 
trate under  the  heel  of  Napoleon  that  German  orators 
and  teachers  began  to  appeal  to  the  people  to  rouse 
from  their  slumber,  shake  off  their  chains,  and  assert 
their  rights  as  a  nation. 

Other  forces,  too,  helped  to  create  a  national  feeling. 
When  railways  came,  they  bound  together  the  different 
sections  of  the  same  country.  Trade  cemented  the  ties 
of  blood  between  these  sections.  Newspapers  and 
books,  circulating  widely,  gave  to  the  same  race  common 
ideas  and  common  hopes.  The  schools  and  the  press 
overcame  local  dialects  and  gave  a  common  tongue  to 
each  people.  Poets,  men  of  letters,  patriot  orators, 
in  ballad,  song,  editorial,  and  stirring  speech,  praised 


NATIONALISM  IN  THE   NINETEENTH  CENTURY    359 

the  glories  of  their  respective  races  and  called  for  unity. 
In  time,  therefore,  armies  that  had  once  fought  for 
the  glory  of  princes  were  ready  to  fight  for  national 
glory  and  independence.  Then  kings  and  princes  began 
to  take  note  of  this  national  spirit  among  the  people 
and  to  use  it  cleverly  for  their  own  ends. 

How  GERMANY  AND  ITALY  BECAME  NATIONS 

The  German  Confederation.  A  slight  step  had  been 
taken  toward  German'  unity  in  1815.  It  was  then 
agreed  that  the  thirty-four  states,  each  ruled  by  a 
prince,  and  the  four  free  towns,  governing  themselves, 
should  be  bound  together  in  a  union  or  confederation. 
It  was,  however,  a  very  loose  union,  something  like 
that  of  the  American  states  under  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation (First  Book,  pp.  149-154).  Moreover,  it 
was  not  a  union  of  people,  but  of  sovereign  princes  and 
free  cities.  The  parliament  or  congress  set  up  for  this 
confederacy  was  only  a  council  of  diplomats,  chosen  by 
the  princes  and  the  cities.  It  had  very  little  meaning 
for  the  whole  German  people. 

There  were  several  reasons  for  this.  The  most 
important  was  the  jealousy  of  the  princes.  Each  of 
them  wanted  to  keep  his  full  power  over  that  section 
of  the  German  people  which  he  himself  ruled.  The 
kings  of  Prussia,  Austria,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Wur- 
temburg  all  cared  more  for  their  own  little  realms  than 
they  did  for  a  German  nation. 

The    Movement   for   National   Unity.     Nevertheless 


360  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

three  important  factors  in  Germany  were  working  for 
unity. 

1.  The  king  of  Prussia  was  ready  to  have  unity  at 
any  time  —  if  he  could  be  master  of  the  whole  empire. 

2.  Merchants    and    manufacturers    wanted    unity. 
That  would  mean  abolishing  the  taxes  on   trade    be- 
tween the  German  states,  freedom  of  trade  in  Germany, 
and  a  duty  on   imports  from  foreign  countries  which 
would  make  it  harder  for  foreigners  to  compete  with 
Germans.     In  this  they  had  before  them  the  example 
of  the  United  States. 

3.  The  third  force  making  for  unity  was  the  activity 
of  those  who  longed  to  see  the  German  people  united 
under    a    constitution    of    their    own    making.     They 
thought  they  could   carry  out  their  design   in    1848, 
when  there  was  a  general  revolution  against  kings  all 
over  Europe.     A   congress   of  German   delegates   met 
at  Frankfort,  debated  for  many  weeks,  and  drew  up  a 
national  constitution.     They  could  not,  however,  put 
it  into  effect  because  the  king  of  Prussia,  who  despised 
the  rule  of  the  people,  opposed  it.     He  was  waiting  for 
his  chance  to  bring  about  unity  by  the  sword  and  to 
make  himself  master.     He  therefore  persecuted  those 
who  pleaded  for  union  and  democracy.     He  drove  from 
the  land  thousands  of  the  friends  of  liberty,  many  of 
whom  settled  in  the  United  States.     Among  them  was 
Carl  Schurz,  who  served  with  honor  in  the  Union  army 
during  the  American  war  between  the  states  and  as 
an  officer  in  the  federal  government  in  after  years. 


NATIONALISM  IN  THE   NINETEENTH  CENTURY    361 

Bismarck  and  Prussia.  In  1861,  the  king  of  Prussia 
called  to  his  aid  one  of  the  most  ingenious  and  powerful 
statesmen  of  modern  times,  Otto  von  Bismarck.  These 
two  men  then  set  out  deliberately  upon  the  task  of 
uniting  Germany,  "  by  blood  and  iron,"  under  Prussian 
control.  They  enlarged  the  Prussian  army.  When 
the  Prussian  parliament  refused  to  vote  taxes,  they 
collected  the  taxes  anyhow.  They  waged  war  on  the 
king  of  Denmark  and  wrested  Schleswig-Holstein  from 
him  in  1864.  They  waged  war  on  Austria  and  drove 
it  out  of  the  German  union.  They  broke  up  the  old 
Confederation  of  1815  and  formed  a  new  system  known 
as  the  North  German  Confederation. 

The  Franco-Prussian  War  and  the  German  Empire. 
They  picked  a  quarrel  with  Napoleon  III,  who  had 
managed  to  make  himself  emperor  of  the  French. 
Napoleon  III  was  a  man  as  ambitious  as  his  famous 
uncle,  but  he  had  less  ability.  In  1870  France  declared 
war  on  Prussia  and  was  badly  defeated.  As  a  result, 
the  Germans  took  away  from  France  the  two  provinces 
of  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  At  the  same  time,  four  South 
German  states,  still  outside  the  union,  joined  the 
German  Confederation.  The  Confederation  itself  was 
turned  into  an  empire.  The  king  of  Prussia  was 
crowned  first  German  emperor  on  French  soil  in  the 
royal  palace  at  Versailles  in  1871. 

Nearly  all  Germans,  except  those  in  Austria,  were 
at  last  united  —  and  with  them  many  Danes,  Poles,  and 
French,  in  spite  of  themselves.  From  a  people  once 


362 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


NATIONALISM  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    363 

divided  and  the  prey  of  foreigners,  the  Germans  had 
become  a  powerful  military  nation.  They  now  had  an 
imperial  ruler  of  their  own  and  were  feared  through- 
out Europe  as  the  French  had  once  been. 

Italy  in  1815.  The  Italians,  unlike  the  Germans, 
were  not  even  united  in  a  loose  confederacy  by  the 
Vienna  settlement  of  1815.  On  the  contrary,  Italy 
was  made  up  of  many  independent  states.  In  the 
north,  Austria  owned  Lombardy  and  Venetia  outright, 
and  members  of  the  Austrian  family  ruled  over  three 
little  duchies  besides.  Across  the  center  of  the  penin- 
sula were  the  independent  States  of  the  Church,  gov- 
erned by  the  pope.  In  the  south  was  the  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  under  the  sway  of  Spanish  Bour- 
bons. The  island  of  Sardinia  and  Piedmont  on  the 
mainland  were  governed  by  the  king  of  Sardinia. 

Most  of  the  Italian  sovereigns  were  equally  interested 
in  keeping  the  country  divided  and  in  putting  down 
all  ideas  of  popular  government.  Austrian  military 
bands  played  in  St.  Mark's  square  in  Venice  to  amuse 
the  people,  but  the  Venetians  were  not  allowed  to 
discuss  politics  or  independence. 

Mazzini  and  the  Spirit  of  Italian  Nationalism. 
Many  Italians  of  the  younger  generation  refused  to 
be  contented  with  their  lot.  They  remembered  that 
Italy  had  once  been  united  under  Rome.  They  re- 
called the  glories  of  the  ancient  republic  and  of  the 
Roman  empire.  They  appealed  to  the  people  to  arise, 
cast  off  the  yokes  of  princes,  and  form  an  Italian  nation. 


364  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Among  the  leaders  of  this  movement  was  Joseph 
Mazzini  (1805-1872),  an  eloquent  speaker,  a  moving 
writer,  and  a  brave  man  of  action.  He  formed  a  so- 
ciety, known  as  Young  Italy,  which  aimed  at  Italian 
unity  under  a  republican  form  of  government. 
"  Young  Italy,"  he  said,  "  is  a  brotherhood  of  Italians 
.  .  .  who  are  convinced  that  Italy  is  destined  to  become 
one  nation,  convinced  also  that  she  possesses  sufficient 
strength  within  herself  to  become  one."  For  nearly 
fifty  years  he  preached  the  gospel  of  unity,  fearing  not 
prison,  exile,  or  battlefield.  In  1848,  when  all  Europe 
was  in  revolution  and  the  Germans  at  Frankfort  were 
trying  to  make  a  national  constitution,  Mazzini  and 
his  followers  seized  the  city  of  Rome  and  declared  a 
republic.  The  attempt  failed,  and  Mazzini  was  driven 
into  exile. 

Cavour  and  Victor  Emmanuel.  The  next  year  there 
came  to  the  throne  of  Sardinia  Victor  Emmanuel, 
who  desired  Italian  unity  provided  it  could  be  brought 
about  under  his  management.  Moreover,  he  had  a 
clever  minister,  Count  Cavour,  who  ardently  hoped 
that  Sardinia  might  play  in  Italy  the  part  played  by 
Prussia  in  Germany.  He  did  not  believe  that  a  republic 
was  possible  ;  but  he  thought  that  the  king  of  Sardinia, 
with  the  aid  of  France,  might  drive  out  the  Austrians, 
overthrow  all  the  other  princes,  and  become  supreme 
in  Italy. 

For  many  years  Cavour  worked  hard  to  bring  this 
about.  In  1859  the  time  seemed  ripe  to  launch  the 


NATIONALISM   IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    365 


scheme  by  a  war  against  Austria.  Supported  by 
Napoleon  III,  Victor  Emmanuel  defeated  the  Austrians 
at  Magenta  and  Solferino  and  added  Lombardy  to 
his  kingdom.  Soon  uprisings  occurred  in  other  parts 
of  Italy  in  favor  of  unity.  Within  a  little  more  than  a 
year,  all  Italy,  except  Venetia  and  a  small  part  of  the 
domains  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  was  united.  In  February, 
1861,  Victor  Emmanuel  was  proclaimed  king  of  Italy. 

Garibaldi  and  His  "  Red  Shirts."  The  work  of 
bringing  the  Two  Sicilies  into  the  kingdom  was  largely 
done  by  the  patriot  Joseph  Garibaldi  and  his  band  of 
"  Red  Shirts,"  as  they  were 
called  on  account  of  their 
uniforms.  Garibaldi  had 
been  active  in  Mazzini's 
Young  Italy  society  and 
had  suffered  persecution 
and  exile.  For  a  while  he 
had  been  a  candle  maker 
on  Staten  Island  in  the 
harbor  of  New  York. 

The  war  on  Austria  in 
1859  gave  him  a  chance 
to  fight  for  Italian  unity. 
The  next  year,  with  the 
aid  of  his  faithful  follow- 
ers, he  overthrew  the  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  By 
a  vote  of  the  people,  southern  Italy  then  joined  the 
North.  Garibaldi  was  hailed  as  a  national  hero. 


GARIBALDI 


From  an  old  print 


366  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

Unity  Finally  Achieved.  When  the  new  kingdom 
was  formed,  Venetia  was  still  under  Austrian  rule  and 
Rome  was  governed  by  the  pope.  Cavour  said  :  "  To 
go  to  Rome  is  for  Italians  not  merely  a  right  —  it  is  a 
stern  necessity."  Austria,  however,  was  very  powerful 
and  the  pope  was  protected  by  French  troops.  Yet 
the  opportunity  desired  by  Cavour  and  Victor  Em- 
manuel came.  In  1866  Austria  was  at  war  with  Prussia. 
The  Italians  were  then  able  to  obtain  the  coveted 
Venetia.  Four  years  later  Napoleon  III  was  badly 
beaten  by  the  Prussians  and  the  French  garrison  was 
withdrawn  from  Rome.  Thereupon  Victor  Emman- 
uel's troops  took  possession  of  the  "  Eternal  City," 
in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  pope.  In  1871  the 
papal  domains  were  annexed  to  Italy. 

King  Victor  Emmanuel,  amid  the  cheers  of  the  people, 
entered  Rome  and  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy.  The  dream  of  the  patriots,  Mazzini  and  Gari- 
baldi, had  in  part  come  true.  Italy  was  not  a  republic 
as  they  had  hoped  ;  but  it  was  united,  and  it  had  a 
national  parliament,  one  branch  of  which  was  elected. 
Only  a  few  Italians  now  remained  under  Austrian  rule 
outside  of  the  union.  They,  too,  were  brought  into  the 
family  at  the  end  of  the  World  War  in  1918. 

Victor  Emmanuel  II  was  everywhere  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  united  Italy.  After  his  death  in  1878 
the  grateful  nation  erected  in  Rome,  not  far  from  the 
old  Forum,  an  imposing  monument  in  his  honor  that 
recalled  the  glories  of  the  Roman  empire. 


NATIONALISM  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    367 


368  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

NATIONALISM  IN  EASTERN  EUROPE 

The  Rule  of  the  Turk.  While  the  Germans  and 
Italians  were  drawing  together  in  national  unity,  a 
number  of  races  in  southeastern  Europe  --  Bulgarians, 
Serbs,  Rumanians,  Greeks,  and  Montenegrins -- were 
striving  with  might  and  main  to  cast  off  the  rule-  of 
an  alien  monarch,  the  Turkish  sultan.  For  hundreds 
of  years  they  had  been  restless  under  the  sway  of  a 
government  that  was  foreign  in  race  and  religion.  It 
was  in  1453  that  the  Ottoman  Turks,  the  followers  of 
Mohammed  (p.  169),  took  Constantinople.  They  drove 
steadily  westward,  hoping  to  bring  all  Europe  under 
their  control.  In  1683  they  were  at  the  very  gates  of 
Vienna.  Then  the  tide  turned.  They  were  slowly 
beaten  back  by  the  Austrians,  Poles,  and  Hungarians. 

At  the  opening  of  the-  nineteenth  century,  Turkish 
rule  in  the  region  of  southeastern  Europe  known  as 
the  Balkans  extended  over  many  subject  races.  All 
the  territory  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  northeastward 
beyond  the  mouth  of  the  Danube  was  held  by  Turkish 
officers  and  soldiers.  The  sultan  was  absolute  in  his 
authority  and  harsh  in  his  manner  of  government.  He 
laid  heavy  taxes  upon  the  conquered  provinces  and 
held  his  subject  peoples  down  by  the  use  of  military 
force.  To  quarrels  over  government  and  taxes  were 
added  religious  and  racial  disputes.  The  masters  were 
Mohammedans  and  Turks.  The  subjects  were  nearly 
all  Christians  and  of  different  races  from  their  mas- 


NATIONALISM   IN  THE   NINETEENTH  CENTURY    369 

ters.  Now  and  then  the  spirit  of  nationality,  always 
smoldering,  flamed  up  into  civil  war  in  which  terrible 
deeds  were  done  by  both  parties. 

The  Rise  of  Independent  Balkan  States.  The  first 
people  to  break  the  Turkish  rule  were  the  Serbs,  who 
by  desperate  efforts  won  the  right  of  self-government 
in  1817,  under  the  leadership  of  Milosh  Obrenovitch, 
a  national  hero.  It  was  not  until  sixty  years  later, 
however,  that  the  Serbs  were  able  to  proclaim  their 
complete  independence  in  the  streets  of  Belgrade,  their 
capital.  In  doing  this  they  had  the  aid  of  Russia.  A 
Serbian  prince  was  chosen  king. 

The  example  set  by  the  Serbs  in  1817  was  soon 
followed  by  the  Greeks,  who  also  longed  to  be  free 
from  Turkish  rule  and  to  revive  the  ancient  glories 
of  their  own  land.  Inspired  by  stirring  appeals  from 
patriot  orators,  they,  too,  rose  in  a  desperate  revolt. 
They  proclaimed  their  independence,  and  called  upon 
the  Christian  world  for  help.  From  all  over  Europe 
soldiers  flocked  to  the  aid  of  the  Greeks,  and  supplies 
were  sent  from  distant  lands.  Even  in  the  United 
States,  meetings  were  held  to  arouse  public  sentiment 
in  favor  of  the  Greek  revolution. 

Fair  Greece  !     Sad  relic  of  departed  worth  ! 
Immortal,  though  no  more ;    though  fallen,  great ! 
Who  now  shall  lead  thy  scattered  children  forth 
And  long  accustomed  bondage  uncreate  ? 

So  wrote  the  English  poet,  Byron,  who  answered  his 
own  question  by  giving  his  life  to  the  Greek  cause. 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


In  1832,  the  powers  of  Europe  recognized  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece  and  chose  Prince  Otto  of  Bavaria 
as  the  king  of  the  new  state. 

Nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury passed.  Then 
in  1878,  with  the 
military  assistance 
of  Russia,  Rumania 
and  Montenegro 
won  their  independ- 
ence. At  the  same 
time  Bulgaria  ob- 
tained the  right  of 
self-government, 
though  it  had  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  sultan 
at  Constantinople. 
Even  that  burden 
was  cast  off  in  1908 
and  complete  free- 
dom from  Moham- 
medan control  was 
secured.  German 
princes,  as  a  result  of  action  by  the  European  powers, 
were  chosen  as  kings  of  Bulgaria  and  Rumania.  A 
local  prince  was  made  head  of  tiny  Montenegro. 

Balkan  Troubles.  Independence  by  no  means 
brought  peace  to  the  Balkans.  The  Turks  still  held 
much  territory  in  Macedonia.  Thousands  of  Serbs 


From  an  old  print 

GREEK  PATRIOTS  MOURNING  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF 
ONE  OF  THEIR  CITIES  IN  THE  WAR  FOR  INDE- 
PENDENCE 


NATIONALISM   IN  THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY      371 

and  Rumanians  still  lived  under  the  Austrian  emperor 
and  longed  to  join  their  independent  countrymen. 
The  Serbs,  Rumanians,  Bulgars,  and  Greeks  were  not 
satisfied  with  their  boundaries.  The  races  were  so 
mixed  that  it  seemed  impossible  to  fix  boundary  lines 


tS3  Slovenes 
^  Serbo-Croats 
HXS  Slovaks      •  Italians 

Poles         123  Rumanians 
F^s]  Ruthenians  Y77/\  Magyars 


NATIONALITIES  IN  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


which    pleased    them    all.     The    result    was    constant 
turmoil  among  the  Balkan  states. 

Finally  the  murder  of  the  Austrian  archduke  by  a 
Serb  in  July,   1914,  was  a  firebrand  that  set  the  whole 


372        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

world  aflame.  Then  opened  the  terrible  war  that 
raged  until  1918,  involving  countries  as  far  apart  as 
the  United  States,  China,  and  Brazil.  At  the  close 
of  that  war  another  effort  was  made  to  settle  the  affairs 
of  the  Balkans  (see  below,  p.  436). 

Nationalism  Suppressed  in  Austria-Hungary.  While 
some  of  the  Balkan  races  were  shaking  off  the  rule  of 
the  sultan,  their  kinsmen  in  Austria-Hungary  were  in 
a  constant  state  of  unrest.  This  empire  had  been 
built  up  through  the  long  centuries  by  the  Hapsburg 
family,  whose  members  were  always  busy  conquering 
new  lands  by  arms.  At  the  opening  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  Austria-Hungary  embraced  Germans, 
Magyars,  Hungarians,  Rumanians,  Italians,  Czechs, 
Slovaks,  Poles,  Croats,  Serbs,  and  Russians.  In 
Austria  proper  the  Germans  were  in  the  lead ;  in 
Hungary  the  Magyars,  although  for  a  long  time  the 
emperor  and  his  German  advisers  at  Vienna  kept  a 
strong  hand  on  all  sections  and  all  races. 

Against  this  strict  rule  the  subject  peoples  early 
began  to  protest.  In  1848  they  revolted.  The  next 
year  the  Hungarians  declared  their  independence  and 
chose  the  patriot  Louis  Kossuth  as  their  governor. 
In  a  few  months  the  armies  of  Austria,  aided  by  Russia, 
came  down  upon  the  Hungarians  and  took  away  their 
liberty  again.  Kossuth,  driven  into  exile,  was  brought 
to  the  United  States  in  an  American  war  vessel.  There 
he  was  received  as  one  of  the  world's  heroes. 

Though  conquered,  Hungary  won  a  certain  degree 


NATIONALISM   IN  THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY    373 

of  freedom.  Later  it  was  permitted  to  take  its 
place  as  an  equal  beside  Austria  under  a  common 
ruler.  The  Czechs,  Slovaks,  Rumanians,  Serbs,  and 
other  peoples  under  the  control  of  Austria-Hungary, 
however,  were  not  so  fortunate.  So  they  kept  up  their 
restless  agitation  for  independence  until  they  got  it 
after  the  World  War  (see  below,  p.  436). 

Nationalism  in  Russia.  Following  the  examples  set 
by  the  Hohenzollerns  and  Hapsburgs,  the  czars  of 
Russia  had  added  to  their  dominions  any  territory  they 
could  seize  or  conquer.  By  this  method  they  extended 
their  empire  from  the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
At  the  same  time,  they  brought  under  their  scepter 
Finns,  Lithuanians,  Latvians  or  Letts,  Esthonians,  Poles, 
Jews,  Tartars,  Armenians,  Mongols,  and  Georgians. 

All  the  subject  peoples  were  ruled,  as  indeed  were 
the  Russians  themselves,  by  the  absolute  power  of 
the  czar.  Though  serfdom  was  abolished  in  1861, 
the  people  were  not  given  any  voice  in  their  gov- 
ernment. Moreover,  the  czar  did  all  he  could  to 
'  Russify  "  the  aliens  ;  that  is,  compel  them  to  take 
the  Russian  language  and  customs  instead  of  their 
own.  This  process  was  a  bitterly  hated  one ;  many 
and  long  were  the  protests  and  struggles  against  it. 
Yet  the  might  of  the  czar,  with  his  spies  and  his 
armies,  was  too  much  for  the  stoutest  opponents. 
Not  until  the  World  War  broke  up  the  Romanoff 
empire  were  the  various  subject  nations  released  from 
Russian  control. 


374  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Dangers  of  Extreme  Nationalism.  The  long  strug- 
gles of  European  races  for  unity  and  independence 
were  accompanied  by  many  heroic  deeds  and  sac- 
rifices. Thousands  of  men  and  women  gave  up  their 
comfort,  their  safety,  and  even  their  lives  that  their 
countries  might  win  the  right  of  self-government. 
We  owe  to  this  spirit  of  devotion  many  an  inspiring 
poem  and  many  a  noble  deed. 

There  was,  nevertheless,  another  side  to  the  spirit 
of  nationalism.  Those  who  were  loudest  in  claiming 
their  own  right  to  liberty  were  often  the  very  first  to 
oppress  others.  Volumes  could  be  filled  with  examples 
of  such  cruelty  chosen  at  random  from  the  pages  of 
European  history.  Moreover,  the  spirit  of  nationalism 
easily  grew  into  the  spirit  of  arrogance.  Pride  in  race 
and  nation  gave  way  to  boasting  and  contempt  for 
other  nations. 

So  nationalism,  inflamed  by  orators,  became  one  of 
the  most  dangerous  forces  in  the  world.  When  kings 
fought  for  their  own  ends  they  usually  had  small  armies 
of  hired  soldiers.  When  nations  began  to  fight,  all 
the  energies  of  united  peoples  were  enlisted.  It  re- 
mains to  be  seen,  therefore,  whether  nationalism  can 
be  kept  within  bounds  and  made  safe  for  humanity 
or  whether  it  is  to  fill  the  world  with  endless  wars. 

Nationalism  and  Immigration  to  America.  The 
many  hard  struggles  of  European  peoples  which  we 
have  just  recounted  have  a  very  close  relation  to  Ameri- 
can history.  The  United  States  was  a  place  of  refuge 


NATIONALISM   IN  THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY    375 

for  revolutionary  leaders,  like  Schurz,  Kossuth,  and 
Garibaldi,  when  their  plans  for  national  independence 
and  unity  went  wrong.  In  addition  to  the  leaders, 
thousands  of  people  from  all  the  subject  races  of  Europe 
flocked  to  America  in  search  of  freedom.  The  American 
people  began  to  speak  of  the  United  States  as  "  the 
asylum  of  the  oppressed  of  all  nationalities,"  and  en- 
couraged immigrants  to  seek  homes  in  our  country. 
Once  here,  the  Germans,  Irish,  Poles,  Jews,  and  other 
races  still  kept  in  touch  with  their  native  lands.  They 
formed  societies  and  raised  money  for  the  benefit  of 
those  who  were  keeping  up  the  battle  for  freedom  at 
home.  They  often  urged  the  government  of  the  United 
States  to  give  aid  to  those  they  had  left  behind.  Thus 
many  strong  ties  were  formed  between  the  New  World 
and  the  Old. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  What  is  meant  by  the  "spirit  of  nationalism"? 
2.  Study  the  statement  by  President  Wilson  (p.  354).  Find  what 
the  word  "sovereignty"  means.  Under  the  sovereignty  of  what 
nation  do  you  live  ?  Under  what  sovereignty  are  the  people  of 
Canada  ?  The  people  of  the  Philippine  Islands  ?  The  people  of 
India  ?  What  was  Mr.  Wilson's  plan  for  deciding  under  what 
sovereignty  a  people  should  live?  3.  How  does  this  differ  from 
the  way  in  which  the  ancient  and  medieval  kings  treated  conquered 
peoples  ?  4.  Why  are  a  common  language  and  a  common  liter- 
ature so  important  in  giving  to  a  people  the  spirit  of  nationalism  ? 
5.  What  is  meant  by  a  "dialect"  ?  Persons  who  speak  the  same 
language  but  use  different  dialects  often  find  it  hard  to  understand 
one  another.  How  would  the  establishment  of  schools  and  news- 


376        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

papers  overcome  this  difficulty  and  make  it  possible  for  larger 
numbers  of  people  to  have  a  common  spirit  of  nationalism  ? 
6.  Some  people  believe  that  a  single  language  may  sometime  be 
developed  to  replace  the  different  languages  now  in  use.  What 
hopes  do  these  people  probably  have  in  mind  in  suggesting  a 
universal  language  ?  Why  would  it  be  more  difficult  to  establish 
such  a  language  than  it  has  been  to  overcome  the  differences  in 
dialects  ? 

II.  i.    How  does   a  "confederation"   differ  from   a  "union"? 
In  what  important  ways  did  the  German  Confederation  formed  in 
1815  differ  from  a  true  nation?       2.    How  did  the  Prussian  king 
and  Bismarck  bring  about  national  unity  in  Germany  ?    How  had 
the  delegates  of  the  people  who  met  at  Frankfort  in  1848  hoped  to 
build  a  German  nation  ?     In  your  judgment,  which  was  the  better 
way,   and  why?       3.    How   did   the   Franco-Prussian  War  come 
about  ?     What  were  its  important  results  ?       4.    What  were  the 
important   differences    between   the   way   in   which   the   German 
people  were  made  into  a  nation  and  the  way  in  which  the  Italian 
people  became  a  nation  ?     Compare  the  work  of  Mazzini,  Victor 
Emmanuel,    and   Garibaldi  with   the  work  of  Bismarck  and  the 
king  of  Prussia. 

III.  i.    Find    out   in    what   ways    the    Mohammedan    religion 
differs  from  the  Christian  religion.       2.    In   1815   the  people  of 
Italy  had  a  common  language  and  a  common  religion,  but  were 
divided    among    different  sovereignties.     How  did  this  condition 
differ  from  that  of  the  people  of  Turkey?       3.    Give  as   many 
reasons  as  you  can  to  explain  why  the  formation  of  free  nations  in 
southeastern  Europe  was  more  difficult  than  in  western  Europe. 
4.    Compare   conditions   in   Austria-Hungary   in    1815  with  con- 
ditions   in    Germany,   Italy,   and  Turkey   at  that  time.       5.    In 
what   ways   did   the  rulers  of  Russia   attempt   to  build   a  great 
Russian  nation  ?     With  what  results  ?       6.    What  has   the  study 
of  this  chapter  taught  you  about  the  things  that  make  a  group 
of  people  into  a  true  nation  ?     What  are  some  of  the  dangers  of 


NATIONALISM   IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    377 

extreme  nationalism  ?  (For  example,  can  peoples  as  well  as  kings 
be  cruel  and  tyrannical  ?)  Can  you  think  of  any  steps  that  a 
nation  might  well  take  to  avoid  these  dangers  ? 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

I.  Compare  the  map  of  Europe  in  1815  (p.  357)  with  the  map 
of  Europe  to-day  (facing  p.  436).  What  countries  that  are  now 
united  were  then  divided  under  different  sovereignties  ?  What 
nations  then  divided  are  now  united  ?  2.  How  did  the  growth  of 
the  "rule  of  the  people"  as  opposed  to  the  rule  of  kings  help  to 
make  the  changes  that  you  find  in  comparing  the  two  maps  ? 
3.  Make  a  list  of  the  names  of  places  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  as 
was  done  for  chapter  xi  on  pp.  288-289.  Then  arrange  them  in 
columns  as  you  were  there  instructed  to  do.  Add  any  new 
columns  that  may  be  necessary. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

FELLOWS,  GEORGE  E.  —  Recent  European  History,  iv-vi;  Sanborn. 

O'NEILL  —  The  Story  of  the  World,  xlv. 

VAN  LOON  —  The  Story  of  Mankind  (School  edition),  liv-lvi. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY 

Attempts  to  Set  the  Clock  Back.  The  French 
revolution,  like  the  English  and  American  revolu- 
tions before  it,  let  loose  in  the  world  a  flood  of  ideas 
about  the  right  of  the  people  to  govern  themselves, 
especially  the  notion  that  all  men  are  equal.  During 
the  Napoleonic  wars  that  followed  the  revolution, 
French  thinkers  stirred  Europe  with  ideas  of  great 
reforms.  Princes  were  overthrown  in  many  countries, 
the  property  of  the  Church  was  seized,  and  serfs 
were  freed.  The  common  people,  who  had  hitherto  had 
no  voice  in  affairs,  began  to  think  and  to  discuss  public 
matters  as  never  before  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

After  the  final  defeat  of  Napoleon,  however,  many 
longed  to  see  the  "  good  old  times  "  again  as  they 
were  before  the  revolution.  Those  who  had  suf- 
fered from  the  loss  of  property  or  feudal  privileges 
sought  to  get  back  lost  wealth.  There  were  also  others 
who  believed  that  the  entire  revolution  had  been  a 
terrible  wrong  and  mistake.  These  helped  to  restore 
the  kings  and  princes  and  to  give  the  Church  its  for- 
mer power. 

378 


THE  GROWTH  OF   DEMOCRACY  379 

So  it  happened  that  a  "  reaction  ':  followed  the 
defeat  of  Napoleon  at  Waterloo  in  1815.  In  Italy, 
Spain,  and  many  German  states,  rulers  were  put  upon 
their  thrones  again  and  given  their  former  absolute 
power  over  their  subjects.  Prussia,  Russia,  and  Aus- 
tria, which  had  felt  the  effects  of  the  revolution  least, 
continued  to  be  ruled  by  absolute  monarchs  as  in  olden 
times.  The  very  idea  of  a  constitution  giving  the 
people  any  power  of  self-government  was  condemned 
by  all  the  leading  kings  on  the  continent.  In  Spain, 
for  instance,  advocates  of  constitutions  were  liable  to 
the  death  penalty. 

Certain  Gains  for  Democracy.  Though  kings  and 
princes  were  restored  to  their  thrones  with  much 
pomp,  the  clock  could  really  not  be  turned  back.  In 
France,  a  member  of  the  old  royal  family  was  crowned 
as  Louis  XVIII,  but  he  could  no  longer  rule  despot- 
ically. A  parliament  was  set  up  and  a  large  number 
of  Frenchmen  were  given  the  right  to  vote.  Taxes 
could  no  longer  be  levied  or  laws  made  without  the 
consent  of  at  least  some  of  the  people.  Serfdom  was 
gone  from  France  and  most  of  Germany  forever. 
Everywhere  in  western  Europe  leaders  among  the 
peasants,  artisans,  and  merchants  boldly  continued  to 
discuss  their  rights  and  to  question  the  power  of 
princes. 


380  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

DEMOCRACY  IN  FRANCE 

The  Revolution  of  1830.  The  kings  soon  found 
how  deeply  the  revolution  had  stirred  the  world.  The 
ruler  of  France  thought  he  could  give  to  the  nobility 
and  the  clergy  the  position  that  they  had  once  held. 
He  thought  also  that  he  could  control  the  press  and 
stop  popular  criticism  of  his  government.  He  soon 
learned  a  lesson. 

The  people  rose  against  Charles  X,  the  brother  and 
successor  of  Louis  XVIII,  in  1830  and  forced  him 
to  flee  from  the  realm.  Among  the  leaders  of  the  up- 
rising was  Lafayette,  who  had  helped  Washington 
establish  the  American  republic  and  who  had  taken 
part  in  the  first  French  revolution.  Attempts  were 
made  once  more  to  abolish  the  monarchy  in  France. 
Although  these  attempts  failed,  the  crown  was  taken 
away  from  the  Bourbon  king  and  given  to  Louis 
Philippe,  who  belonged  to  another  branch  of  the  family. 

Louis  was  called  king  of  the  French  by  <:c  the  will 
of  the  nation  "  as  well  as  by  "  the  grace  of  God." 
Moreover,  he  aped  the  simple  manners  of  republican 
presidents.  He  did  not  make  a  great  display  of  pomp 
and  ceremony,  but  went  about  the  streets  carrying 
with  him  a  green  umbrella  for  sun  or  rain.  More  men 
were  given  the  right  to  vote  for  parliament.  The 
clergy  and  nobility  were  forced  to  one  side,  and  the 
government  of  France  passed  mainly  into  the  hands 
of  business  men. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY  381 

The    Revolution   of    1848  -  -  Republic   and   Empire. 

Louis  chose  advisers  who  opposed  all  further  changes. 
One  of  them  said  that  there  were  not  more  than  one 
hundred  thousand  men  in  France  who  were  capable 
of  voting  with  intelligence  and  independence.  This 
angered  many  people,  especially  the  workingmen  of 
the  towns  who  did  not  have  the  right  to  vote  under 
the  constitution  of  1830.  Their  discontent  increased 
until  in  1848  it  broke  out  in  another  revolution. 
Louis  Philippe  was  forced  into  exile ;  a  republic  was 
proclaimed ;  and  a  national  convention  was  elected  to 
draw  up  a  new  constitution.  In  all  this  the  work- 
ingmen took  a  prominent  part,  in  the  hope  of  im- 
proving their  condition.  Women  appeared  in  greater 
numbers  as  advocates  of  woman  suffrage. 

As  in  the  first  revolution,  things  went  peacefully 
for  a  while.  Then  violence  followed.  The  govern- 
ment would  not  provide  work  for  thousands  of  unem- 
ployed workingmen  and  terrible  fighting  took  place 
once  more  in  the  streets  of  Paris.  Peace  was  at  last 
restored  by  the  sword  and  the  new  constitution  pro- 
claimed. It  made  provision  for  a  president  for  a 
term  of  four  years,  as  is  the  case  in  the  United  States. 

At  the  first  election,  to  the  astonishment  of  the 
world,  Louis  Napoleon,  a  nephew  of  the  great  warrior, 
Napoleon  I,  was  chosen  president  of  the  French  re- 
public. Like  his  famous  uncle,  he  began  to  scheme 
to  make  himself  master  of  France.  Within  a  few 
years  he  actually  induced  the  voters  to  elect  him 


382        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

"  Emperor  of  the  French."  So  the  third  French 
revolution,  like  the  first,  ended  in  an  empire. 

The  Crisis  of  1870  and  the  Third  Republic.  Na- 
poleon III  thought  of  pleasing  the  French  by  giving 
them  "  military  glory."  He  therefore  joined  England 
in  a  war  on  Russia  in  1854.  He  helped  the  Italians 
drive  the  Austrians  out  of  part  of  Italy.  He  tried  to 
turn  Mexico  into  an  empire  as  an  offset  to  the  power 
of  the  United  States  in  the  New  World.  Then,  in 
1870,  he  became  involved  in  a  war  with  Prussia.  This 
last  adventure  proved  to  be  his  ruin.  His  armies  were 
defeated  and  he  was  taken  prisoner. 

Thereupon  leaders  in  Paris  proclaimed  a  republic 
once  more.  While  the  German  armies  were  still  on 
French  soil,  an  election  was  held  for  a  national  assem- 
bly. After  many  months  of  debate,  this  assembly 
completed,  in  1875,  a  new  constitution.  France  was 
a  republic  for  the  third  time.  All  adult  males  were 
given  the  right  to  vote.  The  hope  of  the  extremists 
of  1791  was  at  last  realized.  France  had  a  president 
elected  by  the  parliament  for  a  term  of  seven  years 
instead  of  a  king  ruling  for  life. 

DEMOCRACY   IN    ENGLAND 

The  Old  Parliamentary  System.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  England  had  stood  out 
as  the  home  of  liberty  in  the  Old  World  (pp.  245-254). 
The  king  could  not  make  laws  and  levy  taxes  as  he 
pleased.  He  could  appoint  and  dismiss  his  mini- 


THE  GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY  383 

sters,  but  the  taxing  and  lawmaking  power  had 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Parliament.  The  king's 
officers  did  not  censor  the  press ;  editors  freely  dis- 
cussed politics  and  criticized  the  deeds  of  the  king's 
ministers.  Most  of  the  writers  who  prepared  the  way 


From  an  old  print 
AN  ENGLISH  ELECTION  SCENE  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  :   SOLICITING  A  VOTE 

for  the  French  revolution  gained   their  leading  ideas 
from  the  English  system  of  government. 

Still  England  of  that  day --the  England  against 
which  America  waged  her  war  for  independence  —  was 
far  from  a  democracy.  The  king  enjoyed  high  au- 


384  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

thority.  He  could  choose  his  own  ministers.  He  could 
get  Parliament  to  approve  almost  anything  he  wanted. 
By  using  money  to  bribe  voters  in  elections  and  by 
promising  offices  to  members  of  Parliament  who  voted 
for  his  plans,  the  king  could  nearly  always  get  his  own 
way. 

In  fact  Parliament  usually  thought  as  the  king  did. 
The  House  of  Lords  consisted  mainly  of  nobles,  whose 
number  the  king  could  increase  by  appointing  his 
friends.  The  members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
were  elected  by  popular  vote,  but  they  did  not  speak 
for  the  mass  of  the  people.  Great  cities,  like  Leeds 
and  Manchester,  which  had  grown  up  recently,  had 
no  members  in  the  Commons.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  country  village  with  only  a  handful  of  residents  had 
two  members  in  the  Commons.  In  all  England  there 
were  only  about  160,000  voters  out  of  about  eight 
million  inhabitants ;  that  is,  only  about  one  man 
in  ten  had  the  right  to  vote  for  a  representative  in 
Parliament. 

The  Demand  for  Reform  in  England.  When 
George  III  came  to  the  throne  in  1760,  the  demand 
for  a  reform  of  Parliament  had  already  been  heard  in 
England.  Some  leading  statesmen  asked  that  the 
little  villages  be  deprived  of  their  members  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  They  also  proposed  that  the 
new  cities  be  given  representation. 

This  spirit  of  reform  was  quickened  at  first  by  the 
French  revolution.  The  government  that  was  es- 


THE  GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY 


385 


tablished  in  France  in  1791  was  far  more  democratic 
than  that  of  England,  and  societies  were  formed  in 
England  to  urge  a  peaceful  revolution  there.  The 
reign  of  terror  that  soon  began  in  Paris,  however, 
frightened  the  English.  The  very  idea  of  any  change, 
even  a  slight  one,  was  then  denounced  as  dangerous. 
The  Four  Great  Reform  Bills.  It  was  not  until 
after  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  in  1815  that  parlia- 
mentary reform  was  again  widely  debated  in  England. 
Then  began  a  long  struggle 
which  did  not  end  until  our 
own  time.  England  was  made 
more  democratic,  however,  not 
by  violent  revolution,  but  by 
gradual  reform.  There  was  a 
great  deal  of  extreme  talk  but 
little  disorder  connected  with 
it.  William  Ewart  Gladstone, 
long  the  leader  of  the  Liberal 
party,  which  favored  reform, 
and  Benjamin  Disraeli,  head  of 
the  Tory  party,  which  favored 

i  11  i  r         1 1  1  from  an  oia  pni 

the   old   order,    finally    agreed     WlLLIAM  EwART  GLADSTONE 

upon    the    idea    of    votes    for 

all  men  in  time  to  prevent  revolution. 

By  three  great  reform  bills,  passed  by  Parliament 
in  1832,  1867,  and  1884,  the  right  to  vote  was  gradu- 
ally extended  —  each  time  to  a  wider  circle  of  men. 
Before  the  end  of  Queen  Victoria's  long  reign,  which 


From  an  old  print 


386  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

extended  from  1837  to  1901,  practically  every  man  in 
England  who  had  a  settled  home  could  vote. 

At  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century,  woman 
suffrage,  or  the  right  of  women  to  vote,  became  a  live 
issue;  and  in  1917  Parliament  passed  the  most  sweep- 
ing reform  bill  of  all.  Suffrage  for  all  men  was  es- 
tablished, and  .nearly  all  women  thirty  years  of  age 
or  more  were  given  the  vote.  By  this  law  England 
became  the  first  of  the  great  nations  to  grant  the  vote 
to  women. 

The  Modern  English  System.  While  more  peo- 
ple were  gaining  the  right  to  vote  in  England,  steps 
were  taken  to  give  more  power  to  the  voters.  The 
demand  was  made  that  the  king  should  give  up  his 
right  of  choosing  his  own  ministers.  George  III, 
(First  Book,  p.  103)  stoutly  resisted  it,  but  before  the 
end  of  his  reign  in  1820  he  had  been  forced  to  yield. 
From  that  time  forward,  the  actual  government  of 
England  was  in  the  hands  of  a  group  of  ministers, 
known  as  the  Cabinet.  They  are  selected  by  the  party 
having  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

By  long  disuse,  the  king  also  lost  his  veto  power 
(p.  179).  The  House  of  Lords  remained,  but  in 
1911  it  was  shorn  of  its  power  to  block  bills  passed 
by  the  lower  house.  Thus,  by  a  gradual  process,  the 
English  government  became  even  more  democratic 
than  the  French  plan  of  1791  which  had  alarmed  the 
people  of  England  at  that  time. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY 


387 


388  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

DEMOCRACY  IN  ITALY 

The  King.  We  have  seen  how  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia took  the  lead  in  uniting  all  Italy  under  his  au- 
thority. It  was  in  this  way  that  Victor  Emmanuel  II 
made  himself  a  national  hero.  His  grandson,  Victor 
Emmanuel  III,  fell  heir  to  the  glory  of  the  house, 
though  not  to  its  popularity.  There  have  been  at 
all  times  many  Italians  who  favored  a  republic  for 
their  country ;  yet  the  king  has  managed  to  keep  his 
crown  through  all  the  changes  of  the  past  decades. 

The  Italian  Parliament.  The  history  of  the  pres- 
ent Italian  form  of  government  runs  back  to  1848, 
when  Italy,  like  France,  was  the  scene  of  a  revolution. 
In  that  year,  the  king  of  Sardinia  granted  a  constitu- 
tion to  his  subjects.  He  created  a  senate,  or  upper 
chamber,  composed  of  men  selected  by  himself ;  and 
he  established  a  lower  house,  or  chamber  of  deputies, 
elected  by  the  voters.  When  the  king  of  Sardinia 
became  king  of  all  Italy,  this  charter  of  1848  became 
the  constitution  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Some  changes,  however,  were  made  in  it  from  time 
to  time.  At  first,  a  large  majority  of  the  men  were 
denied  the  right  to  vote.  In  1895  nearly  every  man 
who  could  read  and  write  and  lived  regularly  at  one 
place  was  given  the  ballot.  Owing  to  the  backward 
state  of  education,  however,  this  law  still  deprived 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  a  share  in  their  government. 
Finally,  in  1918,  in  the  midst  of  the  World  War,  Italy 


THE  GROWTH  OF   DEMOCRACY  389 

gave  the  vote  to  all  men  over  twenty-one  years  of  age 
and  also  to  men  under  that  limit  who  had  served  in 
the  war.  Thus  the  democracy  of  manhood  suffrage 
was  established  in  the  Italian  kingdom. 

Only  one  branch  of  the  Italian  parliament,  however, 
is  elected  by  the  voters.  The  senate  was  left  unchanged 
by  the  various  reforms.  As  in  the  beginning,  it  is 
still  composed  of  the  princes  of  the  royal  family  and  a 
number  of  distinguished  men  appointed  for  life  by 
the  king.  Still,  in  choosing  senators  it  is  the  prac- 
tice of  the  king  to  select  men  who  are  eminent  in  liter- 
ature, science,  or  public  office.  On  this'  account  the 
Italian  senate  differs  from  the  English  House  of  Lords, 
composed  mainly  of  noblemen,  and  the  American  sen- 
ate, composed  of  members  elected  by  the  voters. 

DEMOCRACY  IN  GERMANY 

The  Prussian  Monarchy.  Prussia  was  the  leader 
among  the  German  states.  It  had  more  territory 
and  more  inhabitants  than  all  the  others  put  together. 
The  Hohenzollern  family  that  ruled  Prussia  had,  as 
we  have  seen,  built  up  its  kingdom  by  conquering  and 
annexing  neighboring  lands.  Prussian  kings,  there- 
fore, relied  mainly  upon  the  army  to  keep  them  in 
power.  They  also  had  the  support  of  a  very  rich  and 
haughty  nobility  that  owned  large  estates.  Thus 
supported,  the  Hohenzollerns  could  scorn  the  very 
idea  that  the  people  should  decide  for  themselves  what 
was  good  for  them.  They  claimed  to  hold  their 


390        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

crowns  "  by  the  grace  of  God,"  as  had  their  ancestors 
in  olden  times. 

The  Prussian  System.  Still  the  Prussian  kings 
could  not  stamp  out  entirely  the  idea  of  democracy. 
Their  subjects,  like  the  French  and  the  Italians,  were 
stirred  by  the  thought  of  self-government.  In  1848, 
the  Prussian  people,  especially  in  Berlin,  followed  the 
French  example  in  Paris  and  rose  against  the  monarch. 
Because  he  feared  something  worse,  the  king  of  Prussia 
"  graciously  granted  "  a  constitution  to  his  subjects. 
He  gave  up  none  of  his  claims  to  rule  by  divine  right, 
but  he  did  create  a  parliament.  One  of  the  branches 
was  composed  mainly  of  the  great  landlords,  who  had 
no  more  liking  for  democracy  than  did  the  king  him- 
self. In  the  other  branch,  the  people  were  given  a 
voice.  It  was,  however,  only  a  slight  voice.  Two 
thirds  of  the  members  in  it  were  elected  by  a  small 
minority  of  rich  men,  while  the  masses  could  elect  only 
a  third.  This  was  the  Prussian  system  that  lasted 
until  the  close  of  the  World  War  (see  below,  p.  445). 

The  German  Empire.  When  the  German  empire 
was  created  in  1871  (p.  361),  the  king  of  Prussia 
was  chosen  emperor  and  care  was  taken  to  keep  the 
German  people  subject  to  royal  authority.  A  par- 
liament was  established,  but  the  lion's  share  of  power 
was  given  to  the  upper  house  or  Imperial  Council. 
This  council  was  made  up  of  agents  chosen  by  the 
twenty-two  German  princes  and  the  three  free  cities. 
The  lower  house  was  elected.  All  adult  males  were 


CENTRAL  EUROPE  IN  1871 
391 


392  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

given  the  vote ;  but  their  representatives  in  parlia- 
ment could  do  very  little  except  talk.  The  emperor 
appointed  and  dismissed  ministers  at  will.'  In  the 
making  of  war  and  peace,  the  elected  branch  of  the 
government  had  no  voice.  William  II,  the  last  of  the 
Hohenzollerns,  who  was  forced  to  give  up  his  throne 
in  1918,  talked  like  the  despotic  Louis  XIV.  "  Look- 
ing upon  myself  as  the  agent  of  the  Lord,"  he  once 
said,  "  I  go  my  way  without  regard  to  the  opinions 
and  sentiments  of  the  day.  .  .  .  The  only  pillar 
upon  which  the  realm  rested  in  my  grandfather's  day 
was  the  army.  So  it  is  to-day." 

Such  was  the  system  that  made  it  possible  for  a 
very  few  people  to  rule  the  whole  German  empire. 
Loud  and  long  were  the  protests  against  it,  but  they 
were  without  avail  until  after  the  defeat  of  Germany 
in  the  World  War  (below,  p.  434). 

DEMOCRACY  IN  SOUTHEASTERN  EUROPE 

Austria-Hungary.  Like  the  Hohenzollerns  in  Prussia, 
the  Hapsburgs,  who  ruled  in  Austria-Hungary,  had 
little  liking  for  democracy.  They  had  built  up  their 
dominions  by  the  sword ;  they  depended  upon  the 
sword  to  hold  their  varied  collection  of  peoples 
together.  Still,  even  they  could  not  stop  the  spread 
of  new  ideas.  They,  too,  were  forced  to  grant  favors 
to  their  subjects.  To  each  of  their  two  realms  they 
gave  a  constitution  which  provided  for  one  house 
elected  by  popular  vote. 


THE  GROWTH  OF   DEMOCRACY  393 

Step  by  step,  however,  Francis  Joseph,  the  Haps- 
burg  emperor  from  1848  to  1916,  fought  the  rising  power 
of  the  people,  until  in  1907  he  was  forced  to  give 
the  right  to  vote  to  all  men  in  Austria.  In  Hungary, 
on  the  eve  of  the  World  War,  only  tax-payers  could 
vote.  In  both  realms,  the  branch  of  the  parliament 
elected  by  the  voters  was  kept  in  close  rein  by  a 
House  of  Lords  and  by  royal  power.  In  neither 
realm  were  the  highest  officers  controlled  by  the  par- 
liament or  the  people.  As  in  the  case  of  Germany, 
it  took  the  crisis  of  the  World  War  and  bitter  defeat 
to  overturn  the  authority  of  the  Hapsburg  monarchy 
(see  below,  p.  450). 

The  Balkan  States.  When  the  peoples  of  south- 
eastern Europe  —  the  Greeks,  Serbs,  Bulgarians,  and 
Rumanians  —  escaped  one  after  the  other  from  the 
rule  of  the  Turks  (p.  370),  they  made  beginnings 
in  democracy.  In  each  case  a  king  was  chosen,  usu- 
ally on  orders  from  the  chief  countries  of  Europe, 
especially  Germany,  Russia,  and  England.  In  each 
case  also  a  parliament  was  created  and  a  portion  of 
the  men  given  a  voice  in  the  management  of  public 
affairs. 

RISE  OF  DEMOCRACY  IN  RUSSIA 

The    Despotism    of    the    Romanoffs.  —  Of    all    the 

countries  of  Europe,  Russia  was  the  last  to  feel  the 
force  of  the  French  revolution.  Like  Prussia,  it, 
too,  had  been  built  up  by  its  army.  Under  the  power- 


394 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


ful  family  of  the  Romanoffs  it  became  the  most  wide- 
spread despotism  in  the  modern  world.  The  czar 
ruled  absolutely  from  the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Pacific 

Ocean.  On  the  eve  of  the 
World  War  he  had  over 
180,000,000  subjects,  nearly 
twice  the  population  of  the 
United  States. 

The  great  Russian  mon- 
archy rested  upon  founda- 
tions that  seemed  very  solid. 
There  was,  in  the  first  place, 
a  huge  and  powerful  army 
which  the  czar  commanded  as 
he  liked.  In  the  second  place, 
there  was  the  Russian  Church, 
which  taught  his  subjects  obe- 
dience. From  the  highest  of- 
ficial to  the  humblest  village 
priest,  the  Church  supported  the  monarch.  It  depended 
upon  him  for  favors  and  in  turn  helped  him  hold  the 
people  in  subjection.  In  the  third  place,  no  criticism  of 
the  czar  was  allowed  in  newspapers,  books,  or  public  ad- 
dresses. Spies  and  policemen  searched  high  and  low  for 
anyone  who  said  that  the  people  ought  to  rule  or  that 
great  changes  ought  to  be  made  in  the  government. 
Finally,  there  was  the  ignorance  of  the  masses.  Most 
of  the  people  were  peasants.  They  had  been  freed 
from  serfdom,  but  they  were  without  education 


THE  FORMER  RUSSIAN  EMPEROR, 
NICHOLAS  II 


396  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

and  bent  to  the  very  ground  with  poverty,  taxes,  and 
wars. 

The  Revolution  of  1905.  Each  czar  tried  to 
prevent  democratic  ideas  from  creeping  into  Russia. 
Leaders  who  talked  about  reforms  were  whipped, 
imprisoned,  or  exiled  to  distant  Siberia.  They  re- 
sponded by  attempts  to  assassinate  the  czar  or  his 
officials  and  by  acts  of  terrorism.  The  brutality  on 
both  sides  was  shocking.  Meanwhile  democratic  ideas 
slowly  spread  among  the  Russian  people.  It  was 
impossible  to  keep  the  doors  and  windows  of  Russia 
sealed. 

When  Russia  was  defeated  in  a  war  with  Japan  in 
1905,  the  country  was  filled  with  famine  and  misery. 
Then  the  people  rose  in  a  desperate  revolt  against 
autocratic  rule.  Only  by  using  the  police  and  the 
army  was  the  czar  able  to  keep  his  throne.  Still,  as 
in  the  case  of  other  monarchs,  he  had  to  pay  the  price 
by  allowing  the  people  a  voice  in  his  government. 
He  created  a  national  parliament,  called  the  Duma, 
but  he  was  careful  to  see  that  the  landlords  and  his 
agents  controlled  it.  Peace  was  bought  for  a  short 
time.  Then,  in  the  midst  of  the  World  War,  the  czar 
was  overthrown  and  his  whole  system  broken  to  bits 
in  a  revolutionary  outburst  (see  below,  p.  446). 

DEMOCRACY  IN  THE  ORIENT 

Japan.  -  -  When  Japan  was  opened  to  the  Western 
world  in  1854,  the  Japanese  people  began  to  take  an 


THE   GROWTH  OF   DEMOCRACY 


397 


interest  in  Western  customs  and  ideas  of  government. 
Students  and  travelers  from  Japan  visited  America 
and  Europe  and  took  back  reports  of  what  they  had 
seen  and  learned. 
At  that  time,  Japan 
was  very  much  like 
the  Europe  of  the 
middle  ages.  The 
mikado,  or  emperor, 
ruled  as  absolutely 
as  any  medieval 
king.  The  country 
was  divided  into 
great  estates  owned 
by  feudal  lords  and 
tilled  by  serfs.  The 
masses  could  not 
read  or  write  and 
accepted  without 
question  the  com- 
mands of  the  em-  @  Keystone  vlew  C0t 

peror.         To       most   THE  "FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL"  IN  JAPAN.     (NOTE 
.  .  ,  ,       THE  SANDALS,  WHICH  MUST  BE  LEFT  OUTSIDE) 

Japanese    this    old 

order  seemed  satisfactory ;  but  they  could  not  pre- 
vent Western  ideas  and  customs  from  creeping  into 
Japan. 

In  1871  the  chief  privileges  of  the  nobles  were 
abolished,  as  those  of  France  had  been  in  1789.  At 
the  same  time  the  serfs  were  set  free.  Soon  the 


398  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

demand  for  a  share  in  the  government  was  heard. 
The  emperor,  wiser  than  some  Western  monarchs, 
did  not  wait  for  a  violent  revolution.  He  chose  a 
commission  of  u  wise  men"  to  study  the  question  of 
government,  and  in  1889  gave  a  constitution  to  his 
empire.  He  kept  the  right  to  appoint  his  own  minis- 
ters and  to  command  the  army  and  navy ;  but  he 
created  a  parliament  to  aid  in  making  laws  and  laying 
taxes.  He  formed  one  house  out  of  the  nobles  and 
princes  of  Japan.  The  lower  house,  he  arranged, 
should  be  elected  by  the  voters.  Since  he  was  in  no 
mood  to  try  extreme  ideas,  he  limited  the  right  to 
vote  to  the  well-to-do. 

After  a  few  years  a  cry  went  up  for  <:i  more  de- 
mocracy." Leaders  demanded  the  vote  for  all  Japanese 
men,  and  even  woman  suffrage  was  heard  of  in  the 
land  of  the  mikado.  At  the  close  of  the  World  War, 
Japan  seemed  threatened  by  a  revolution.  In  1920 
the  parliament  passed  a  bill  giving  the  right  to  vote 
to  many  more  of  the  emperor's  subjects. 

But  Japan  is  by  no  means  a  democracy  in  the  Eng- 
lish or  American  sense  of  the  word.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  still  very  much  like  Prussia  under  the  Hohenzol- 
lerns  (p.  390).  The  Japanese  constitution,  like  that 
of  old  Prussia,  was  granted  to  the  people  by  the  em- 
peror and  can  be  taken  away  by  him.  The  masses 
are  taught  that  the  emperor  rules  by  divine  right  and 
the  constitution  declares  that  he  is  "  the  head  of  the 
empire,  combining  in  himself  all  power  of  state."  The 


THE  GROWTH  OF   DEMOCRACY 


399 


400 


THE  GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY 


401 


emperor  is  surrounded  by  a  small  group  of  men  each 
of  whom  is  the  leader  of  a  powerful  political  party. 
They  are  his  close  advisers.  They  are  supported  by 
the  landlords,  manufacturers,  and  business  men  of 
Japan,  numbering  about.  125,000  out  of  seventy  mil- 
lion people.  These  form  the  ruling  class  of  Japan. 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

A  GROUP  OF  REPUBLICAN  CAVALRY  OFFICERS  IN  CHINA 

They  hold  all  the  important  public  offices.  They 
are  feared  and  respected  by  the  masses.  Japanese 
religion  and  education  both  teach  reverence  for  the 
emperor  as  the  greatest  virtue. 

China.      The   changes    which    affected    Japan    like- 
wise stirred  the  unwieldy  Chinese  empire.     For  thou- 


402  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

sands  of  years  it  had  slumbered  on  under  the  sway  of 
its  emperors.  Then  it  was  suddenly  aroused  by  an 
invasion  of  European  and  American  traders  and  mis- 
sionaries. Chinese  students  and  business  men  began 
to  travel  in  Western  countries. and  on  their  return  home 
set  about  "  modernizing  "  China. 

The  mass  of  the  Chinese  people  knew  little  more 
than  their  ancestors  had  known  four  thousand  years 
before.  Still  the  reformers  could  not  wait  for  slow 
growth.  They  overthrew  the  monarchy  in  1912  and 
established  a  republic,  with  a  president  and  a  parlia- 
ment. 

Instead  of  the  prosperity  that  was  expected  to  re- 
sult from  the  revolution,  there  came  civil  war  and 
years  of  trouble.  Leaders  of  the  army,  especially  in 
the  north,  longed  for  the  return  of  a  strong  monarch. 
Leaders  in  the  south,  where  the  merchants  were 
numerous,  clung  to  the  idea  of  a  democracy.  Both 
parties  claimed  to  speak  for  China,  but  neither  of 
them  was  able  to  establish  itself  firmly  in  the  entire 
country.  North  China,  however,  won  recognition 
from  other  countries. 

DEMOCRACY  AND  CIVIL  LIBERTY 

The  Rights  of  Man.  The  French  revolution,  the 
industrial  revolution,  and  the  rise  of  democracy  all 
worked  together  for  a  new  kind  of  liberty.  In  the 
middle  ages  the  fate  of  nearly  every  man  was  fixed 
at  birth.  The  son  of  a  peasant  became  a  peasant  and 


THE  GROWTH  OF   DEMOCRACY 


4°3 


the  son  of  a  nobleman  belonged  to  the  aristocracy. 
In  the  modern  age  such  old  customs  have  become  less 
rigid.  As  far  as  the  law  is  concerned,  every  man  is 
free  to  choose  his  own  calling.  He  may  go  and  come 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

MRS.   EMMELINE  PANKHURST,   ENGLISH  WOMAN  SUFFRAGE  LEADER,  SPEAKING 

IN  LONDON 

at  will  within  the  nation  to  which  he  belongs.  He  may 
even  be  free  to  emigrate  to  some  other  part  of  the  world 
to  make  his  home.  He  is  free,  too,  to  think  for  him- 
self and  to  choose  the  church  to  which  he  wishes  to 


404        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

belong.  He  may  join  any  political  party,  and  express 
his  views  on  any  subject.  All  these  rights  are  known 
as  civil  liberties. 

The  Rights  of  Women  and  Children.  -  -  Women  and 
children,  even  more  than  grown-up  men,  were  affected 
by  these  new  rights.  In  the  middle  ages,  a  woman  had 
practically  no  choice  except  to  labor  as  a  housewife 
or  as  a  peasant  in  the  fields  or  to  enter  a  convent  as  a 
nun.  In  the  modern  age,  women  not  only  vote ;  they 
may  choose  any  one  of  many  fields  of  industry  or  busi- 
ness. They  may  engage  in  a  profession  such  as  medi- 
cine, or  they  may  take  up  teaching,  literature,  or  art. 
They  may  earn  their  own  wages  and  spend  them  as 
they  please.  They  may  hold  public  office. 

Even  little  children  share  in  the  new  order  of  things. 
In  old  Rome  the  father  had  the  power  of  life  and  death 
over  his  wife  and  children.  To-day  parents  must 
allow  their  children  to  attend  school.  If  they  are 
cruel,  their  children  may  be  taken  away  from  them. 
Usually  boys  and  girls  may  choose  any  life  work  for 
iwhich  they  have  talent.  Public  schools  are  open  to 
them  so  that  they  may  get  a  training  for  the  work  they 
select  for  themselves.  In  a  way,  therefore,  we  may 
call  the  age  of  democracy  "  the  children's  age." 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  "reaction"  as  used  in  the 
third  paragraph  of  this  chapter  ?  Reactions  almost  always  follow 
severe  wars  ;  can  you  think  of  any  reasons  for  this  ?  2.  What  is 


THE  GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY        405 

meant  by  the  statement,  "...  the  clock  could  really  not  be 
turned  back"  (p.  379)  ?  In  what  ways  did  those  who  came  into 
power  after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  attempt  to  "turn  the  clock 
back"  ?  3.  How  many  years  elapsed  between  the  beginning  of 
the  first  French  revolution  and  the  second  revolution  ?  Between 
the  second  and  the  third  revolutions  ?  4.  Napoleon  III  is  some- 
times referred  to  as  "Napoleon  the  Little";  why?  5.  What 
were  some  of  the  differences  between  the  government  of  France 
under  the  "Third  Republic"  and  the  government  under  the 
"  First  Republic"  ?  In  what  ways  does  the  government  of  France 
to-day  differ  from  the  government  of  our  country  ? 

II.  i.    Compare  the  power  of  the  English  king  under  the  old 
parliamentary  system  with  the  power  of  the   French   king  just 
before  the  first  French  revolution  (see  pp.  292-295).     Why  was 
England  at  that  time  "still  far  from  a  democracy"?       2.    How 
could  it  have  come  about  that  a  large  city  like  Manchester  sent 
no  representatives  to  the  House  of  Commons  when  many  small 
villages    had   two   members    each  ?     (What   great   movement  was 
taking    place    which    caused    the    rapid    growth    of    the    cities  ?) 

3.  How   did   the   progress   toward   democracy  in   England   differ 
from  the  progress   toward   democracy  in   France  ?     In  America  ? 

4.  In    what    important   ways   does   the   government  of   England 
to-day  differ  from  the  government  of  our  country  ? 

III.  I.    What  advance  toward  democracy  was  made  by   Italy 
in   adopting  the  charter  of   1848?       2.    What  further   advances 
were  made  in   1918?       3.    Compare  the  present  government  of 
Italy  with  that  of  the  other  countries  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

IV.  i.    Can  you  think  of  any  reasons    that  will  explain  why 
the  kings  kept  their  power  in  Germany  longer  than  they  did  in 
England,  France,  and  Italy  ?       2.    How  did  the  imperial  council 
of  the  German  empire  differ  from  the  House  of  Lords  in  England, 
the  French  parliament,  and  the  Italian  senate?       3.    Why    was 
the  "lower  house"  of  the  German  parliament  less  powerful  than 
the  English  House  of  Commons  ? 


406        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

V.  What  reasons  can  you  give  to  explain  why  the  development 
of  democracy  in  southeastern  Europe  has  been  much  slower  than 
in  western  Europe  ?      (Recall  the  difficulties  that  the  growth  of 
free  nations  have  met  in  these  countries.) 

VI.  I.    How  did   the  rulers  of  Russia   manage  to   hold  their 
power  for  so  long  a  time  ?     What  effect  did  the  location  and  size 
of  the  Russian  empire  have  on  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  democracy  ? 
2.    The  Russian  czars  did  not  favor  free  schools  for  the  common 
people.     What  effect  would  the  lack  of  education  be  likely  to  have 
on  the  success  of  democratic  government  when  it  did  come  ? 

VII.  I.    Compare  the  growth  of  democracy  in  Japan  with  the 
growth  of  democracy  in  England,  France,  and  Germany.       2.    In 
what  ways  does  the  government  of  Japan  more  closely  resemble 
the   government  of  Germany  before   the  World   War   than   the 
government  of  England  and  France?       3.    Why  has  democratic 
progress   been   slower  in   China  than  in  Japan  ?     (Compare  the 
two  countries  as  to  size  and  location.) 

VIII.  I.    Lord  Bryce,  a  famous  English  scholar  and  statesman, 
defined  democracy  as  "the  rule  of  all  the  people  as  contrasted 
with  the  rule  of  a  special  group  or  class."     What  do  you  think  of 
this  definition  ?       2.    How  has  the  growth  of  democracy  helped 
the  "common  people"  ?     (Compare  the  way  in  which  the  common 
people  lived  in  the  middle  ages  with  the  way  in  which  they  live 
to-day.)     How  have  women  and  children  benefited  from  the  growth 
of  democracy  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 
DALE  —  Landmarks  of  British  History,  xiii. 
MACGREGOR  —  The  Story  of  France,  Ixxxiv,  Ixxxvii. 
MARSHALL  —  An  Island  Story,  c. 
TAPPAN  —  England's  Story,  xxxiv,  xxxv. 
WARREN  —  Stories  from  English  History,  pp.  406-417. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE   IMPERIAL   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN  NATIONS 

THE  growth  of  industry,  the  rise  of  democracy,  and 
the  spread  of  national  spirit  all  worked  together  to 
make  more  intense  the  age-long  rivalry  among  European 
nations.  It  was  hoped  that  they  would  bring  peace, 
and  yet  the  most  terrible  war  of  all  history  has  taken 
place  in  our  own  time. 

As  the  mills  and  factories  multiplied  in  Europe, 
business  men  of  all  nations  became  more  and  more 
active  in  selling  their  manufactured  goods.  They 
searched  out  markets  for  their  wares  in  every  quarter 
of  the  globe  —  in  Asia,  South  America,  and  Africa. 
The  competition  among  them  became  keener  and  keener. 

With  the  rise  of  democracy,  moreover,  the  masses 
demanded  more  than  the  coarsest  food  and  the  barest 
necessities  of  life.  They  called  for  tea,  sugar,  coffee, 
and  spices  ;  they  insisted  on  having  better  houses  and 
better  clothing ;  they  came  to  regard  as  essential  to 
their  happiness  goods  that  had  to  be  brought  from 
the  ends  of  the  earth.  Thus,  in  a  way,  the  business 
men  pushing  out  to  conquer  new  markets  and  outdo 
their  rivals  helped  to  bring  about  modern  democracies. 

407 


408        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

Finally,  the  spirit  of  nationalism  served  to  increase 
strife  among  European  countries.  In  the  name  of 
national  pride  and  honor,  governments  sought  to  add 
to  their  colonial  possessions  and  increase  their  foreign 
trade.  In  the  name  of  nationalism,  all  European 
countries  except  England  put  tariffs  on  imports  from 
other  lands.  In  the  name  of  nationalism,  armies  and 
navies  were  enlarged  and  other  preparations  were 
made  for  war  on  a  vast  scale.  So  nationalism  widened 
out  into  the  feverish  contest  for  trade  and  territories 
known  as  imperialism.  All  the  old  rivalries  of  kings 
and  princes,  all  the  old  contests  of  merchants  and 
traders  were  stirred  anew  and  in  1914  burst  into  the 
terrible  conflict  known  as  the  World  War. 

EUROPE  IN  THE  ORIENT 

The  Awakening  of  the  Far  East.  The  chief  center 
of  the  new  European  imperialism  was  in  Asia.  There 
opportunities  for  trade  were  especially  inviting.  The 
Chinese  and  Japanese  were  skilled  in  many  industries 
and  arts.  They  had  tea,  silks,  rice,  spices,  and  other 
valuable  products  to  sell,  and  the  profits  to  be  made 
out  of  the  commerce  were  huge.  Many  difficulties, 
however,  at  first  stood  in  the  way  of  trade.  The 
Chinese  did  not  welcome  Europeans.  They  would 
give  foreigners  only  a  limited  right  to  traffic  in  cer- 
tain places.  The  Japanese  were  equally  proud. 
Though  more  willing  to  trade  with  the  Europeans, 


IMPERIAL  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS       409 

they  resented  the  coming  of  Christian  missionaries  in 
great  numbers.  Finally  they  became  so  hostile  that 
they  drove  out  the  aliens  altogether  and  made  severe 
laws  against  foreign  commerce  of  any  kind.  For  more 
than  two  hundred  years,  both  China  and  Japan  were 
almost  sealed  to  the  outside  world. 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

A  FAMOUS  CHINESE  TEA  HOUSE  IN  SHANGHAI 

They  could  not,  however,  keep  their  ports  abso- 
lutely closed  to  the  ever  active  foreigners.  In  1842 
England  waged  war  on  China  and  forced  her  to  open 
certain  coast  cities  to  general  trade.  Eleven  years 
later,  the  United  States  government  sent  a  commis- 
sion, headed  by  Commodore  Perry,  to  Japan  to  open 


410 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


IMPERIAL   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN  NATIONS       411 

relations  with  the  Japanese  government.  Frightened 
by  the  experience  of  the  Chinese,  the  Japanese  regret- 
fully agreed  to  receive  the  commission.  From  that 
time  forward  the  commercial  nations  of  Europe,  as 
well  as  the  United  States,  have  steadily  increased 
their  business  with  China  and  Japan. 

China  and  Japan  Contrasted.  The  fates  of  the 
two  Oriental  countries,  after  they  were  opened  to 
world  trade,  proved  to  be  very  different.  Huge  China 
fell  a  prey  to  the  foreigners.  The  French  seized  vast 
territories  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  empire. 
The  British  established  themselves  at  Hong  Kong 
and  Wei-Hai-Wei.  The  Germans  in  1897  laid  hold 
of  the  Shantung  Peninsula.  The  Russians  pressed 
in  from  the  northwest  and  helped  themselves.  For 
a  time  it  looked  as  if  China  might  be  seized  entirely  by 
foreigners. 

What  a  contrast  Japan  presented !  More  secure 
in  her  island  home,  she  grew  into  a  strong  industrial 
and  military  power.  In  1894  sne  even  attacked 
China  herself  and  was  easily  victorious.  The  Japa- 
nese would  have  taken  a  large  slice  of  Chinese  terri- 
tory then  if  France,  Germany,  and  Russia  had  not 
prevented  it. 

Japan  nursed  her  secret  longings  for  ten  years. 
Meanwhile  she  prepared  a  huge  army  and  navy  and 
made  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Great  Britain.  All 
ready  for  the  fray,  she  declared  war  on  Russia  in  1904 
and  overwhelmed  the  czar's  troops  and  battleships. 


4I2 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


Japan  then  took  most  of  Russia's  Chinese  territory. 
A  few  years  later,  Japan  occupied  also  the  Chinese 
province  of  Korea,  which  she  had  long  coveted. 

The  "  Open  Door  "  Policy.  In  this  mad  scramble 
of  the  powers  to  seize  Chinese  territory,  the  United 
States  refused  to  join.  It  declared  that  China  should 


r* 

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f  I  &tf&%;f&&™*«WAliy% 

J2    UAVL    A  i  i     Min.u^   OF  EVERY  THINGS 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

A  CHINESE  SHOP  WITH  AMERICAN  GOODS  FOR  SALE 

not  be  broken  into  bits  and  distributed  among  for- 
eigners. It  said  that  China  should  be  preserved  for 
the  Chinese  and  that  all  countries  should  have  merely 
general  trading  privileges  with  the  Chinese  people. 
This  was  called  the  policy  of  the  open  door,  so  well 
known  in  America  and  so  appreciated  by  the  Chinese 


IMPERIAL   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN   NATIONS       413 

themselves  (First  Book,  pp.  380-384).  Between  her 
attempts  to  beat  off  foreigners  bent  on  her  ruin  and 
her  efforts  to  establish  a  republic,  China  had  appall- 
ing problems  to  solve.  Knowing  that  Japan  was  de- 
termined to  dictate  to  her,  if  possible,  China  turned 
to  the  United  States  for  advice  and  support. 

EUROPEAN  OCCUPATION  OF  AFRICA 

Exploration.  By  a  strange  stroke  of  fortune,  Africa 
was  the  last  of  the  great  continents  to  be  explored 
and  seized  by  European  powers.  At  the  opening 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  it  was  so  little  known 
that  it  was  properly  called  "  the  dark  continent." 
The  Egyptians,  heirs  of  the  ancient  civilization  of  the 
Nile  Valley,  still  had  some  dealings  with  the  outside 
world.  There  were  several  trading  ports  along  the 
Mediterranean  coast  also.  The  Dutch,  French,  and 
English,  moreover,  had  visited  the  Atlantic  shores 
to  seize  slaves  for  American  markets.  The  Dutch 
had  even  planted  a  colony  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  English  during 
the  Napoleonic  wars.  The  heart  of  the  continent, 
however,  was  wholly  unknown  until  after  1850. 

The  work  of  opening  Africa  was  undertaken  by 
intrepid  explorers,  among  whom  David  Livingstone, 
the  life-long  missionary,  was  perhaps  the  most  famous. 
For  more  than  twenty-five  years  he  traveled  about 
in  the  heart  of  Africa.  Once  he  was  lost  for  a  long  time. 
The  task  of  finding  him  was  undertaken  by  Henry  M. 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


NATIVE  POTTERY  MAKERS  IN  AFRICA 

Stanley,  a  writer  for  an  American  newspaper.  After  he 
had  gone  into  the  fever-laden  jungle  and  rescued  Liv- 
ingstone, Stanley  continued  his  travels.  He  made 
the  world  familiar  with  Africa  through  many  a  thrill- 
ing story  of  adventure.  His  wonderful  tale,  How  I 
Found  Livingstone,  ranks  high  among  the  books  of 
travel  written  by  Americans. 

The  Partition  of  Africa.  Before  the  explorers  had 
completed  their  work,  the  leading  countries  of  Europe 
began  a  general  scramble  to  get  African  territory. 
England,  France,  and  Germany  were  in  the  lead,  with 


30°  20°  10°  0° 


40°  50°  60° 


40°  50°  60° 


AFRICA 


416 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


Italy  not  far  behind.     To  the  first  of  these  countries 

fell  the  largest  share. 

The  English  gained  control  of  Egypt  in  1882.     They 

likewise  pressed 
steadily  inland 
from  their  foothold 
at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  (p.  268).  The 
old  Dutch  settlers, 
the  Boers,  fled  be- 
fore them  into  the 
interior  and  estab- 
lished  two  re- 
publics of  their 
own.  As  they  ad- 
vanced, the  Eng- 
lish came  to  blows 
with  these  repub- 
lics ;  after  a  short 
and  bloody  war, 
which  opened  in 
1899,  they  brought 
the  Boers  under 

their  flag.     At  various   points  on  the  east   and   west 

coasts  of  Africa,  English  explorers,  traders,  and  soldiers 

staked  out  huge  claims  for  their  country  and  discovered 

gold  and  diamond  mines. 

The  French  were  not  far  behind  the  English.     They 

annexed   Algiers    in    1843;     they   added   Tunis    later; 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

THE  HOISTING  MACHINE  AT  AN  AFRICAN 
DIAMOND  MINE 


IMPERIAL   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN  NATIONS       417 

they  seized  vast  reaches  of  territory  in  the  Sudan  and 
along  the  Congo  River ;  and  they  got  the  upper  hand  in 
Morocco.  Under  French  direction  the  Suez  Canal  was 
built  in  1859-69.  The  Germans,  after  founding  their 
empire  in  1871,  began  to  follow  the  example  of  England 
and  France.  Between  1884  and  1890  they  laid  hold 
of  immense  areas  in  Southwest  and  Southeast  Africa. 
Meanwhile  the  Italians  conquered  Libya  and  a  strip 
of  Abyssinia.  The  Belgians  carved  out  for  themselves 
a  large  state  south  of  the  Congo  River.  The  Portu- 
guese managed  to  keep  a  huge  African  territory  occu- 
pied during  the  early  days  of  their  explorations. 

By  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century,  the 
dark  continent,  with  its  millions  of  natives,  had  been 
explored  and  divided  among  European  commercial 
rivals.  An  immense  trade  in  rubber,  ivory,  coffee,  and 
other  products  was  built  up  with  Europe  and  America. 

EUROPEAN  INTEREST  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  Revolt  of  the  Spanish  Colonies.  Owing  to  the 
rivalry  of  European  nations  for  trade  and  colonies, 
it  was  impossible  for  Latin  America  —  Mexico,  Cen- 
tral America,  South  America,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Caribbean -- to  escape  the  European  invasion.  At 
the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  nearly  all  of 
this  region  belonged  to  Spain.  The  most  important 
exception  was  Brazil,  which  was  Portuguese. 

The  people  of  the  Spanish  territories  consisted  of 
Spaniards,  many  of  mixed  native  and  Spanish  blood, 


i^rrr 


5     a,.«-*  .y- 


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f4 


/>°  9^    8-2-    V% 

/  v-  /•  ^-i^u  V  -; 


418 


IMPERIAL   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN  NATIONS       419 

and  a  large  population  of  pure  native  stock.  The 
natives  were  almost  wholly  illiterate  and  had  no 
knowledge  of  government  on  a  large  scale.  Catholic 
missionaries  had  converted  the  natives  to  Christianity 
and  Spanish  soldiers  had  ruled  them.  Spanish,  often 
in  the  form  of  a  dialect,  was  their  language. 

Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  when,  in  1808,  Na- 
poleon conquered  Spain  and  placed  his  brother  on 
the  Spanish  throne.  This  was  followed  by  the  revolt 
of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America.  Beginning  in 
1810,  one  colony  after  another  declared  its  independ- 
ence. Simon  Bolivar  was  the  hero-leader  in  this 
South  American  revolution.  Within  a  few  years  all 
the  mainland  colonies  had  thrown  off  the  rule  of  the 
mother  country.  Napoleon  was  deposed  and  the  old 
king  of  Spain  was  restored  to  his  throne ;  but  the  for- 
mer colonies  clung  to  their  newly  won  independence. 

Then  the  king  of  Spain  talked  about  conquering 
them  by  force  of  arms.  He  asked  his  brother  mon- 
archs  in  Europe  to  help  him  do  it.  In  1822  a  congress 
of  royal  agents  met  at  Verona  to  consider,  besides  other 
things,  plans  for  putting  down  the  rebellion  in  America. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine.  The  United  States  was 
alarmed  by  this  conference  at  Verona.  So  also  was 
England,  because  her  merchants  had  built  up  a  big 
business  with  the  Spanish-American  republics  after 
they  threw  off  the  rule  of  Spain.  The  kings  of  Europe 
did  not  lend  the  king  of  Spain  ships  and  soldiers  to 
conquer  his  former  colonies.  Nevertheless  the  presi- 


420 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


dent  of  the  United  States,  James  Monroe,  feared  that 
they  might  do  so.  Since  he  knew  that  he  had  the  sup- 
port of  England,  he  gave  to  the  world  in  1823  the  mes- 
sage, or  doctrine,  which  still 
bears  his  name  (First  Book, 
pp.  192-194).  He  warned 
the  kings  of  Europe  against 
making  any  attempt  to  restore 
the  rule  of  Spain  or  to  annex 
new  territories  on  the  Amer- 
ican continents.  He  told  them 
bluntly  that  such  actions 
would  be  regarded  as  un- 
friendly by  the  United  States. 
This  was  a  clear  hint  that 
any  attempt  of  that  kind 
would  be  met,  if  necessary,  by  force  of  arms. 

Europe's  Interest  in  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  By  his 
message  President  Monroe  said,  in  effect,  that  the 
United  States  would  protect  all  independent  Latin- 
American  states  against  European  governments. 
This  proved  in  time  to  be  a  serious  matter  for  us.  It 
meant  that  every  time  any  of  those  states  had  a  dis- 
pute with  any  European  country,  the  United  States 
was  concerned  in  the  affair.  It  meant  also  that  all 
nations  in  their  dealings  with  Latin  America  had  to 
be  on  their  guard  against  breaking  the  rules  of  the 
Monroe  Doctrine. 

More  than  one  grave  result  flowed  from  this  doc- 


JAMES  MONROE 


\  I  I          GENERAL  DRAFTING/CO. INC 


110°  100° 


80°  70° 


50°  40°  30°  20°  10° 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


422  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

trine.  During  the  American  Civil  War,  Napoleon 
III,  the  emperor  of  the  French,  took  a  hand  in  Mexi- 
can affairs.  He  attempted  to  set  up  one  of  his 
princely  friends,  Maximilian  of  Austria,  as  emperor 
there.  When  the  Civil  War  was  over,  our  govern- 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  inc. 

ON  A  SOUTH  AMERICAN  SHEEP  RANCH 

ment  was  free  to  act  in  the  case.  It  warned  Napo- 
leon against  violating  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  He  took 
the  warning  seriously  and  withdrew  his  soldiers.  He 
knew  that  our  President  was  ready  to  send  an  army 
to  Mexico  to  enforce  the  American  policy. 

In  1895  another  question  was  raised.     England  and 


IMPERIAL  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS       423 

Venezuela  fell  into  a  dispute  over  the  boundary  of 
British  Guiana.  Venezuela  claimed  that  England 
was  trying  to  get  some  of  her  territory.  President 
Cleveland  took  up  the  matter  and  called  attention 
to  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (First  Book,  p.  364).  For 
a  time  it  looked  as  if  there  might  be  war  between  Eng- 
land and  our  country ;  but  fortunately  it  was  avoided 
by  peaceful  settlement. 

About  ten  years  later,  Germany  had  a  quarrel  with 
Venezuela  over  the  payment  of  debts  due  her  citizens 
and  there  was  talk  of  war.  This  time  President 
Roosevelt  sent  the  German  emperor  a  sharp  warning, 
which  was  finally  heeded.  So  another  Latin-American 
problem  was  solved  without  resort  to  arms. 

Sources  of  Difficulty  in  Latin  America.  The  chief 
concern  of  European  countries  in  Mexico,  Central 
America,  and  South  America  was  about  trade,  money 
matters,  and  industries.  European  business  men 
built  up  a  profitable  trade  in  those  countries.  They 
established  warehouses,  stores,  and  factories.  They 
invested  huge  sums  of  money  in  oil  wells,  mines,  land, 
and  railways.  They  lent  money  to  all  the  govern- 
ments and  to  many  private  companies.  It  was  there- 
fore to  their  interest  to  see  that  order  was  maintained 
and  business  kept  going. 

Now  it  happened  that  after  the  revolt  against  Spain 
there  were  many  revolutions  and  wars  in  Latin 
America.  Every  one  of  them  upset  business  and  made 
it  hard  to  collect  debts.  This  often  led  European 


424 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

AN  ENGLISH  BANKING  HOUSE  IN  BUENOS  AIRES 


IMPERIAL   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN  NATIONS       425 

statesmen  to  say  in  effect  :  "The  United  States  ought 
to  keep  order  in  Latin  America.  If  it  will  not  do 
this,  then  it  should  allow  us  to  protect  our  business 
and  collect  debts  by  force  of  arms  if  necessary." 
Thus  the  United  States  was  placed  in  a  difficult  posi- 
tion. Latin  America  was  glad  to  have  help  against 
Europe ;  but  it  resented  the  idea  that  our  govern- 
ment should  interfere  in  any  other  way.  The  United 
States,  therefore,  had  (i)  to  meet  the  demands  of 
European  business  men  and  investors ;  and  (2)  at 
the  same  time  to  keep  the  friendship  of  the  countries 
to  the  south  of  us. 

The  Caribbean.  The  interest  of  Europe  in  this 
hemisphere  has  been  by  no  means  confined  to  the 
mainland.  It  has  extended  to  the  great  chain  of  is- 
lands which  stretch  almost  all  the  way  from  the  coast 
of  Florida  to  the  coast  of  Venezuela.  Owing  to  the 
voyages  of  Columbus  and  other  explorers,  Spain  early 
claimed  all  of  them ;  but  in  the  course  of  time  one 
island  after  another  was  taken  away  from  her.  Near 
the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  her  dominions 
consisted  of  only  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  a  few  minor 
islets.  In  1898  came  the  war  with  the  United  States 
(First  Book,  pp.  372-375).  This  put  an  end  to  Span- 
ish power  in  the  West  Indies.  Cuba  became  inde- 
pendent and  Porto  Rico  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States. 

The  fate  of  the  other  islands  in  the  Caribbean  has 
been  strange  indeed.  Haiti  went  to  France,  one 


426  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

part  in  1697  and  another  in  1795.  While  Napoleon  I 
was  emperor  of  the  French,  the  slaves  on  the  island 
revolted,  and  after  a  terrible  struggle  set  up  two  little 
republics,  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo.  After  a  stormy 
career  of  more  than  one  hundred  years,  both  of  them 
were  brought  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
States  by  President  Wilson.  The  Virgin  Islands 
near  by  were  bought  from  Denmark  by  the  United 
States  in  1917. 

In  the  midst  of  all  these  changes,  Great  Britain 
continued  to  hold  her  score  or  more  of  islands  scat- 
tered all  the  way  from  the  Bahamas  near  Florida  down 
to  the  Windward  Islands  near  the  coast  of  South 
America.  France  also  managed  to  retain  several 
of  the  islands  which  she  had  acquired  from  time  to 
time  since  the  seventeenth  century.  Thus  two  of 
the  great  powers  of  Europe  held  bases  for  their  ships 
in  American  waters  not  far  from  the  Panama  Canal 
(First  Book,  pp.  424-427). 

THE  WORLD  WAR --1914-18 

The  Background  of  the  War.  We  have  already 
seen  how  the  chief  countries  of  Europe  engaged  in 
long  and  terrible  wars  over  trade  and  territories  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  (chapter  xi). 
We  have  also  noted  how  the  same  rivalry  flamed 
up  in  the  desperate  Napoleonic  wars  (pp.  310- 
314).  Although  there  was  no  general  European  war 
for  a  hundred  years  after  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon, 


IMPERIAL  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS      427 

the  world  was  filled  with  local  conflicts.  England, 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  other  European  powers, 
as  they  extended  their  colonies  in  Asia  and  Africa, 
were  almost  constantly  fighting  natives  somewhere 
in  their  empires. 

There  were,  moreover,  many  local  wars  in  Europe. 
In  1854  England  and  France  joined  the  Turks  in  a 
terrible  struggle  in  the  Crimea  against  Russia.  Later 
France  and  Italy  united  in  a  military  campaign  to 
drive  the  Austrians  from  Italian  soil.  In  1866  Prussia 
fought  a  six  weeks'  war  with  Austria  and  drove  her 
out  of  the  German  Confederation  (p.  361).  Shortly 
afterward  came  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  which  broke 
out  in  1870  and  ended  in  the  defeat  of  France  (p.  361). 

The  Growth  of  German  Power.  Triumphant  over 
France,  Germany  entered  upon  a  new  military  and 
business  career.  Her  industries  grew  by  leaps  and 
bounds  as  she  extended  her  trade  in  every  part  of  the 
globe.  She  developed  the  best  equipped  and  most 
powerful  army  in  the  world.  Her  business  men  began 
to  compete  sharply  with  British  merchants  in  every 
market.  Germany  then  began  to  build  a  strong  navy 
to  rival  Great  Britain  on  the  sea.  She  made  an 
alliance  with  Austria  and  Italy  known  as  the  Triple 
Alliance.  Austria-Hungary  and  Turkey  were  brought 
under  German  influence.  Together  they  planned  a 
united  "  Middle  Europe  "  stretching  from  the  banks 
of  the  Rhine  to  Constantinople.  The  German  em- 
peror, William  II  (p.  392),  declared  that  he  had  re- 


428        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

ceived  his  throne  from  God  and  warned  his  soldiers 
that  his  word  was  law. 

The  Alliance  between  France  and  Russia.  The  growth 
of  German  power  alarmed  the  other  countries  of  Europe, 
especially  England,  France,  and  Russia.  Taking  the 
situation  into  account,  France  and  Russia  formed  an 
alliance  in  1892.  They  agreed,  in  case  of  an  attack 
by  Italy,  Germany,  or  Austria,  to  join  forces  and  to 
wage  war  together  to  the  end,  making  no  separate 
peace.  The  Germans  looked  upon  this  agreement  as 
a  menace  and  redoubled  their  military  preparations. 

The  Understanding  between  England  and  France.  A 
few  more  years  passed.  Then  England  and  France, 
forgetting  their  ancient  rivalry  and  grudges,  began  to 
draw  together.  They  did  not  make  a  formal  treaty 
of  alliance.  The  governments  of  the  two  countries 
simply  ordered  their  military  and  naval  experts  to 
hold  "  consultations  "  as  to  what  they  would  do  in 
case  of  a  war  with  Germany.  These  conferences  be- 
gan in  1906.  Thus  there  was  created,  as  the  British 
foreign  minister  later  said,  "  an  obligation  of  honor  " 
to  help  France  in  case  of  an  attack  by  Germany. 

The  Treaty  between  England  and  Russia.  The  next 
year,  England  and  Russia  also  laid  aside  their  quar- 
rels. They  made  a  treaty  settling  several  disputed 
points  without  forming  a  regular  alliance.  Later,  how- 
ever, British  and  Russian  naval  officers  were  ordered 
to  discuss  a  combination  of  forces  in  case  of  a  war 
with  Germany. 


IMPERIAL   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN  NATIONS       429 

The  German  emperor  declared  at  the  time  that  Eng- 
land, Russia,  and  France  were  working  for  war.  He 
added  that  Germany  would  take  counter  measures. 
This  was  what  a  large  military  party  in  Germany, 
eager  for  war,  desired.  The  flames  of  war  were  just 
on  the  point  of  bursting  out  and  setting  the  whole 
world  on  fire. 

The  Outbreak.  The  stage  of  Europe  was  all  set 
for  war  when  on  June  28,  1914,  the  archduke  of  Aus- 
tria and  his  wife  were  murdered  while  on  a  visit  to 
the  Austrian  province  of  Bosnia.  The  archduke  was 
the  heir  to  the  Austrian  throne.  His  assassin  was  a 
Serb  who  resented  the  rule  of  the  Austrians  over  peo- 
ple of  his  race  (p.  371)  and  desired  to  see  all  Serbs 
united  under  Serbia. 

Austria  was  in  great  excitement  at  once.  She  ac- 
cused the  Serbian  government  of  aiding  in  plots  de- 
signed to  arouse  the  Serbs  in  Austria  against  their 
lawful  sovereign.  Austria  then  made  humiliating  de- 
mands upon  Serbia.  Russia,  fearing  the  growth  of 
Austrian  power  in  southeastern  Europe,  encouraged 
Serbia  to  stand  firm.  Serbia,  however,  yielded  on 
most  of  the  demands.  Still  Austria,  not  satisfied, 
declared  war  on  her. 

Meanwhile  the  German  government  had  assured 
Austria-Hungary  of  its  support  at  all  costs.  Russia, 
learning  that  the  Austrians  were  ready  for  war,  made 
ready  her  own  troops.  While  Europe  trembled  on 
the  brink  of  war,  England  urged  a  settlement  of  the 


43°        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

quarrel  at  an  international  conference  or  by  arbitra- 
tion. Germany  refused  to  force  this  peaceful  advice 
upon  her  ally,  Austria-Hungary. 

Hearing  that  the  Russian  army  was  ready  for  war, 
the  German  government  demanded  that  the  czar 
send  his  troops  home.  The  czar  refused.  There- 
upon Germany,  on  August  I,  1914,  declared  war  on 
Russia.  France,  by  her  ties  with  Russia,  was  also 
brought  in.  Germany  called  upon  her  to  remain 
neutral.  Knowing  that  Russia  would  thus  be  beaten 
and  that  her  own  turn  would  then  come,  France  re- 
plied that  she  would  "  have  regard  for  her  interests." 
On  August  3,  Germany  declared  war  on  France. 

Belgium.  Having  failed  to  secure  a  peaceful  set- 
tlement of  the  trouble  between  Serbia  and  Austria- 
Hungary,  England's  next  steps  seemed  uncertain. 
At  this  point  the  German  army  was  marching  on 
France,  not  directly,  but  toward  Belgium,  which  lay 
between  Germany  and  the  northern  border  of  France, 
Now  the  chief  powers  of  the  world  had,  long  before, 
solemnly  agreed  that  they  would  regard  Belgium  as  a 
neutral  country.  They  had  promised  not  to  send 
armies  into  her  territory.  Germany,  as  well  as  the 
other  countries,  was  bound  by  this  pledge.  Belgium, 
however,  was  an  almost  defenseless  nation  ;  and  the 
border  between  France  and  Belgium  was  lightly  forti- 
fied. The  Germans,  therefore,  decided  that  they 
would  march  through  Belgium.  Thus  they  planned 
to  strike  a  terrific  blow  at  France  in  her  weakest  spot 


IMPERIAL  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS       431 

and  quickly  capture  Paris.  They  first  asked  per- 
mission of  the  Belgians,  only  to  meet  a  proud  refusal. 
Then  they  prepared  to  march  on  Belgium  as  an  enemy. 

England  and  Belgium.  Before  invading  Belgium, 
however,  the  Germans  tried  to  find  out  what  position 
England  would  take  in  the  matter.  The  German 
ambassador  in  London  asked  the  British  foreign  min- 
ister whether  England  would  remain  neutral  if  Ger- 
many did  not  invade  Belgian  territory.  The  British 
minister  refused  to  bind  himself,  adding  :  "  I  do  not 
think  that  we  could  give  a  promise  of  neutrality  on 
that  condition  alone."  That  was  on  August  i. 

The  next  day,  England  informed  France  that,  if 
German  battleships  came  out  into  the  channel  to  attack 
the  French  coast,  the  English  navy  would  help  protect 
it.  Two  days  later,  the  English  government  told 
the  king  of  Belgium  that  it  would  expect  him  to  re- 
sist, by  all  means  in  his  power,  an  attempt  of  the  Ger- 
mans to  enter  his  country.  On  the  same  day,  Eng- 
land demanded  of  Germany  that  she  keep  out  of  Bel- 
gium. Germany  refused  and  marched  into  Belgium, 
making  war  on  her.  On  August  4,  England  was  at 
war  with  Germany. 

The  World  War.  So  during  the  first  week  of 
August,  1914,  the  war  opened.  Austria-Hungary 
and  Germany  were  lined  up  against  England, 
France,  Russia,  Belgium,  Serbia,  and  Montenegro. 
Soon  Japan  came  to  the  help  of  its  ally,  England. 
Italy  remained  neutral  until  1915,  when  it  joined  the 


432  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

powers  against  Germany  and  Austria.  In  the  course 
of  time,  the  war  widened  to  include  the  United  States, 
Rumania,  China,  Brazil,  and  other  countries  in  the 
line-up  against  Germany  and  Austria  ;  while  Turkey 
and  Bulgaria  took  the  part  of  Germany  and  Austria. 
The  fires  of  war  encircled  the  globe.  The  conflict, 
therefore,  became  known  as  the  World  War. 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

DESTRUCTION  OF  FRENCH  COAL  MINES  BY  THE  GERMAN  ARMY 

The  Course  of  the  War.  The  German  army 
plunged  through  Belgium  into  France  and  was  checked 
only  by  the  heroic  efforts  of  the  French  and  British 
at  the  first  battle  of  the  Marne  in  September,  1914. 
It  then  retreated  to  northern  France,  dug  trenches, 
and  stood  fast. 

Far  in  the  east,  the  armies  of  Russia  and  Germany 
swayed  forward  and  back  until,  in  1917,  the  Russian 
czar  was  overthrown  by  a  revolution  at  home.  Rus- 


IMPERIAL  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS       433 

sia  fell  into  the  hands  of  men  of  extreme  views  known 
as  the  Bolshevikiy  who  made  peace  with  Austria  and 
Germany,  paying  a  terrible  price  for  it.  The  Ger- 
mans and  Austrians  also  overran  Serbia  and  Rumania 
and  helped  the  Turks  to  beat  off  the  attacks  by  the 
British.  The  Italians  battled  in  the  mountains  along 
their  northern  border  against  the  combined  forces  of 
Austria  and  Germany. 

Never  before  in  the  history  of  mankind  had  the 
world  beheld  such  a  dreadful  spectacle.  Millions  of 
armed  men,  supported  by  huge  cannon,  poison  gas, 
airplanes,  machine  guns,  armored  cars  or  u  tanks," 
and  a  score  of  other  deadly  weapons  waged  war  day 
and  night  with  awful  carnage.  For  nearly  three  years 
they  kept  it  up  without  reaching  a  decision.  Then 
the  sword  of  the  United  States  was  thrown  into  the 
scale. 

America  and  the  World  War.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  Napoleonic  wars  a  hundred  years  before  (p. 
314,  and  First  Book,  pp.  181-187),  American  trade 
on  the  sea  was  disturbed  by  the  war  in  Europe. 
England's  navy  at  the  outset  blockaded  the  coast  of 
Germany  and  cut  off  her  commerce  at  sea,  including 
of  course  her  trade  with  the  United  States.  Germany 
protested  against  the  British  blockade.  The  United 
States  also  objected  to  certain  features  of  it. 

Then  Germany  startled  the  world  by  declaring 
that  her  submarines  would  sink  ships,  passengers, 
and  crews  engaged  in  trade  with  her  enemies.  Against 


434  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

this  policy,  President  Wilson  protested  vigorously  but 
without  success.  German  submarines  sank  American 
ships  and  took  American  lives. 

America's  answer  all  the  world  knows.  In  April, 
1917,  the  United  States  entered  the  war  against  Ger- 
many. More  than  two  million  American  soldiers 
crossed  the  sea  to  France;  American  ships  joined  in 
the  hunt  for  submarines.  American  sailors  and  sol- 
diers fought  bravely  on  the  battlefield  and  on  the  sea. 
General  John  J.  Pershing  commanded  our  army  in 
France. 

The  End  of  War.  Against  such  a  union  of  forces 
as  were  now  brought  into  the  field,  Germany  and 
Austria-Hungary  battled  in  vain.  The  French,  Eng- 
lish, and  American  forces  on  the  French  front,  under 
General  Foch,  drove  against  the  Germans  with  over- 
whelming might.  The  Italians  kept  up  the  fight  on 
their  front  also. 

In  the  summer  of  1918,  the  Germans  began  to  give 
way.  In  October  the  Austrians  sued  for  peace.  In 
November  the  Germans  became  panic-stricken.  The 
German  government  in  the  hour  of  defeat  also  begged 
for  peace.  On  November  1 1  a  truce  was  signed. 
The  long  and  deadly  war  was  at  an  end.  The  German 
emperor  was  forced  to  give  up  the  throne  and  flee 
into  Holland.  Then  a  revolution  transformed  his  em- 
pire into  a  republic. 

The  Treaty  of  Peace.  —  The  final  terms  of  the 
peace  were  drawn  up  at  Paris  and  signed  in  1919. 


IMPERIAL   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN  NATIONS       435 


436        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

President  Wilson  went  there  in  person  to  take  part  in 
the  conference.  In  fact,  Woodrow  Wilson,  president 
of  the  United  States,  Lloyd  George,  the  British  prime 
minister,  Georges  Clemenceau,  the  French  premier, 
and  Vittorio  Orlando,  the  Italian  prime  minister,  were 
the  leading  figures  in  the  grand  congress  of  victors 
that  decided  the  fate  of  Germany,  Austria-Hungary, 
and  their  allies. 

In  the  general  settlement,  Germany  was  disarmed  ; 
her  battleships  were  taken  from  her;  she  was  ordered 
to  pay  a  huge  indemnity  for  the  damage  she  had 
wrought ;  and  she  was  forced  to  give  Alsace-Lorraine 
back  to  France. 

Austria-Hungary  was  broken  up  and  the  several 
races  under  its  rule  were  given  independence  (below, 
chapter  xvii).  Italy  secured  from  Austria  a  large  strip 
of  territory  along  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

The  German  colonies  in  Africa  were  turned  over 
to  England  and  France.  The  German  islands  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean  north  of  the  equator  were  placed  under 
the  control  of  Japan.  German  rights  in  China  were 
also  given  to  Japan,  much  to  the  discontent  of  the 
Chinese,  to  whom  they  originally  belonged. 

French,  English,  Belgian,  and  American  troops  en- 
tered Germany  to  hold  certain  towns  and  provinces 
until  the  terms  of  the  treaty  should  be  fulfilled. 

Finally,  under  the  leadership  of  President  Wilson, 
a  plan  to  unite  all  the  countries  of  the  world  in  a  League 
of  Nations  was  included  in  the  treaty.  Its  purpose 


EUROPE  AFTER 


IMPERIAL  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS       437 


IMPERIAL  RIVALRY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS       439 

was  to  prevent  wars  and  settle   disputes  by  peaceful 
methods. 

Although  the  other  countries  in  the  World  War, 
except  China,  ratified  the  treaty  of  1919  with  Ger- 
many, the  United  States  rejected  it.  The  Senate 
refused  to  approve  it  even  with  amendments.  In 
the  presidential  campaign  of  1920,  the  Republican 
candidate,  Warren  G.  Harding,  strongly  denounced 
the  League  of  Nations.  After  he  became  President, 
he  refused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  it.  In  the 
summer  of  1921  Congress  by  a  simple  resolution  de- 
clared the  war  with  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary 
at  an  end.  A  few  months  later  brief  treaties  were 
made  with  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    What   is    meant   by   the   word    rivalry?     Can   you    find 
examples  of  rivalry  among  the  merchants   of  your  own  town  ? 
What   rivalries    are   there   between   your   town   and    neighboring 
towns  ?     What  are  some  of  the  good  things  about  rivalry  ?    What 
are  some  of  the  dangers  ?       2.    In  what  ways  did  the  growth  of 
industry  increase  the  rivalry  among  modern  nations?       3.    How 
did  the  growth  of  democracy  influence  this   rivalry  ?       4.    The 
text  states  that  the  spirit  of  nationalism  increased  rivalry.     Can 
you  think  of  any  way  in  which  the  rivalry  may  also  have  intensi- 
fied the  spirit  of  nationalism?       5.    Why  is  the  rivalry  among 
nations    which    is    discussed    in    this    chapter    called    "imperial" 
rivalry  ? 

II.  I.    Why  did  the  European  nations  wish  to  trade  with  China 
and  Japan  ?       2.    A  certain  amount  of  trade  with  these  countries 
had  been  carried  on  by  European  merchants  in  early  times  (see 


44° 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


ch.  viii).  What  reasons  may  China  and  Japan  have  had  for 
wishing  to  stop  trade  with  Europe  ?  3.  How  was  trade  reopened 
with  China  ?  With  Japan  ?  4.  What  effect  did  trade  with 
Europe  have  upon  Japan  ?  Why  was  the  effect  on  China  so  dif- 
ferent ?  5.  What  important  differences  have  there  been  be- 
tween the  policy  of  our  country  toward  China  and  the  policies  of 
the  European  nations  ? 

III.  I.    What    reasons    can    you    give    that   will    explain    why 
''Africa  was  the  last  of  the  great  continents  to  be  explored  and 
seized  by  the  European  powers  "  ?        2.    What  led  David  Living- 
stone to  explore  central  Africa  ?     What  different  motives  did  the 
European  nations  have  in  beginning  their  "general  scramble  to 
get  African  territory"  ?       3.    In  what  ways  would  European  trade 
with  central  Africa  differ  from  European  trade  with  China  and 
Japan  ?       4.    For   what   other   purposes    besides    trade   may    the 

'  European  nations  have  wished  to  secure  African  territory  ? 
(Think  of  the  growing  populations  of  these  nations  and  limited 
space  in  which  they  had  to  grow.) 

IV.  I.    What  is   meant  by   Latin  America?     What  countries 
are  included  under  this  term  ?       2.    How  did  the  rule  of  Spain 
on  the  American  continent  differ  from  the  English  colonial  rule  ? 
3.    When  the  English  colonies  became  independent  they  established 
a  single  nation ;    when  the  Spanish  colonies  threw  off  the  rule  of 
Spain  they  formed  several  independent  nations.     Can  you  think 
of  any  reasons  that  will  explain  this  difference  ?       4.    Why  was 
the  United  States  alarmed  by  the  conference  at  Verona  ?     What 
danger  to  this  country  would  there  have  been  in  the  reconquest 
of   the    Latin-American    colonies    by    Spain?       5.    The    Monroe 
Doctrine  states  a  very  important  "policy"  of  the  United  States. 
What  are  some  of  the  differences  between  a  policy  and  a  law? 
What  other  important  American  policy  has  already  been  referred 
to  in  this  chapter  ?     Perhaps  you  can  think  of  other  policies  that 
our  country  has  adopted.       6.    What  problems  has  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  given  rise  to  in  connection  with  our  relations  to  European 


IMPERIAL   RIVALRY  OF   EUROPEAN  NATIONS       441 

nations  ?  What  difficulties  have  we  had  with  the  Latin-American 
countries  themselves  because  of  this  doctrine  ?  7.  What  ter- 
ritories are  included  under  the  term  Caribbean  ?  What  possessions 
does  the  United  States  now  hold  in  the  Caribbean  ?  8.  With 
the  exception  of  Cuba,  Haiti,  Jamaica,  and  Porto  Rico,  the  islands 
•of  the  Caribbean  are  small  and  not  very  important  for  purposes  of 
trade.  Why,  then,  would  European  nations  wish  to  hold  these 
islands  as  colonial  possessions  ? 

V.  i.  How  many  years  elapsed  between  the  close  of  the  Na- 
poleonic wars  and  the  opening  of  the  World  War  ?  2.  What 
important  conflicts  among  European  nations  took  place  during 
these  years  ?  3.  Review  the  differences  between  the  government 
of  Germany  before  the  war  and  the  governments  of  England, 
France,  and  Italy  (ch.  xv).  Which  of  the  three  kinds  of  govern- 
ment would  be  most  likely  to  develop  a  desire  for  war  and  to 
prepare  for  a  war  of  conquest  ?  Why  ?  4.  Why  did  the  growth 
of  German  power  alarm  England,  France,  and  Russia  ?  What 
steps  did  they  take  to  meet  the  danger  ?  What  effect  did  their 
action  have  upon  Germany  ?  5.  What  was  the  immediate  cause 
of  the  outbreak  in  1914  ?  Why  did  Russia  stand  by  Serbia  in  her 
trouble  with  Austria  ?  6.  What  brought  France  into  the  con- 
flict ?  7.  The  German  invasion  of  Belgium  was  an  act  that  had 
a  great  deal  to  do  with  setting  the  civilized  world  against  her. 
Why  was  this  act  so  strongly  denounced  even  by  neutral  nations  ? 

8.  What  effect  did  the  invasion  of  Belgium  have  upon  England  ? 

9.  The  battle  of  the  Marne  will  probably  be  known  for  centu- 
ries  to  come  as  one  of  the  decisive  battles  of  history.     Why  ? 

10.  What  finally  led  the  United  States  to  take  part  in  the  war? 
With    what    result?       n.    Discuss    the    important    settlements 
decided  upon  by  the  Peace  Conference.     Why  did  the  people  of 
the  United  States  refuse  to  ratify  the  peace  treaty  and  to  join  the 
League    of    Nations?       12.    What    important    revolutions    took 
place  during  the  war  and  immediately  after?     Can  you  give  any 
reasons  for  these  revolutions  ? 


442        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES 

I.  If  possible,  secure  a  copy  of  a  textbook  in  geography  that  was 
printed  before  1919.  Compare  the  maps  of  Europe,  Africa,  the 
Caribbean  region,  and  South  America  with  the  corresponding 
maps  on  pp.  415,  418,  and  421  and  facing  p.  436  of  this  book.. 
What  new  countries  do  you  find  as  a  result  of  the  World  War  ? 
Make  a  summary  of  the  other  changes  that  you  observe.  Com- 
pare this  summary  with  those  that  you  find  in  your  regular  text- 
book in  geography  if  that  has  been  printed  since  1919. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  READING 

BENEZET  —  The  Map  of  Europe,  xiii-xxi. 

BENEZET,    L.    P.  —  Young   People's   History   of  the    World  War ; 

Macmillan. 
O'NEILL  —  The  Story  of  the  World,  xlvi,  xlvii. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW  OF  CHAPTERS  XIII-XVI 

1.  These  chapters  have  told  the  story  of  three  great  develop- 
ments   of    the    modern    world:     (a)    democracy;     (b)    industry; 
(c)    nationalism.     An  important  event  in  the  growth  of  democracy 
was  the  French  revolution.     Another  was  the  enactment  of  the 
"  reform"    bills    in    England.     Name   as   many  other   important 
events  associated  with  the  modern  development  of  democracy  as 
you  can  find  in  your  review  of  these  chapters.     In  the  same  way, 
make  lists  of  the  important  events  that  mark  the  growth  of  in- 
dustry and  of  nationalism. 

2.  The  period  of  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  covered  by  these 
chapters  has  witnessed  many  political  revolutions.     Draw  a  line 
six  feet  long  on  the  blackboard  to  represent  the  years  between 
1789  and  the  present  time.     Mark  at  the  proper  places  on  this 
line  the  years  when  important  political  revolutions  have  taken 
place. 


IMPERIAL    RIVALRY    OF    EUROPEAN    NATIONS     443 

3.  Under  the  line  just  mentioned  draw  another  line  of  the  same 
length  representing  the  same  period,  and  place  marks  indicating  the 
important  wars.     How  does  the  position  of  the  marks  indicating 
revolutionary  years  compare  with  that  of  the  marks  indicating 
the  war  years  ? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  mentioned  in  these  four  chapters. 
Try  to  group  these  persons  under  the  following  heads  :  (a)  heads  of 
nations  (including  kings,  emperors,  and  presidents) ;  (b)  statesmen 
or  political    leaders;    (c)    military    and    naval    leaders;    (d)    sci- 
entists ;    (e)    inventors ;    (/)  leaders  in  social  reforms ;    (g)   writ- 
ers ;  (h)  explorers.     Perhaps  you  will   find   some  that  should  be 
placed  in  more  than  one  group.     Pick  out  those  in  each  group 
who,  in  your  judgment,  best  deserve  to  be  remembered  because 
of  the  good  that  they  have  done  for  humanity.     Vote  on  the  five 
that  you  would  like  best  to  know  more  about  and  have  committees 
appointed  to  make  the  class  well  acquainted  with  these  persons 
and  their  work. 


CHAPTER   XVII 
EUROPE   IN  OUR  OWN  TIME 

THE  treaty  that  closed  the  World  War  did  not  bring 
peace  among  the  nations  of  Europe.  Neither  did  it 
give  contentment  to  the  people  of  the  various  coun- 
tries engaged  in  the  war.  The  conflict  had  been  so 
long  and  so  bitter  that  the  world  could  not  settle  down 
in  quiet  at  once.  All  the  nations  of  the  earth  had 
been  deeply  stirred  by  the  struggle.  A  score  of  kings 
and  princes  had  been  overthrown.  In  central  Europe 
new  republics  had  been  established  in  place  of  former 
monarchies.  Millions  of  men  had  been  killed  or 
wounded.  Women  had  been  made  widows.  Chil- 
dren had  been  orphaned.  Business  had  been  turned 
mainly  to  the  making  of  supplies  for  war.  It  could 
not  be  turned  back  in  a  day  to  a  peace  basis.  Heavy 
debts  had  been  created.  Someone  had  to  pay  them; 
so  taxes  were  increased  almost  to  the  limit  of  endur- 
ance. It  was  clear  that  it  would  take  years  to  bring 
Europe  out  of  the  distress  into  which  it  had  fallen. 

THE  DOMESTIC  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  NATIONS 
The    German    Revolution    of    1918.       Among    the 
important  results  of  the  war  was  the  collapse  of  the 

444 


EUROPE  IN  OUR  OWN  TIME 


445 


German  empire  —  the  empire  which  had  been  pro- 
claimed with  such  pomp  in  1871.  When  it  was  clear 
that  the  German  army  was  defeated  on  the  field  of 
battle,  a  revolutionary  government  was  formed  in 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 

GERMAN  SOLDIERS  AND  CIVILIANS  CHEERING  THE  DECLARATION  OF  THE 
REPUBLIC   IN  NOVEMBER,  1918 

Berlin.  The  kaiser,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  434),  was 
forced  to  flee  from  the  realm.  All  the  kings,  princes, 
and  dukes  who  ruled  in  the  states  of  the  former  em- 
pire were  likewise  overthrown.  The  next  year,  after 
a  long  debate,  a  new  constitution  was  adopted  in  Ger- 


446 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


many.  The  first  article  declared  that  "  the  German 
empire  is  a  republic.  Political  power  springs  from  the 
people."  Provision  was  made  for  a  president  and  a 
parliament,  both  elected  by  the  German  people,  women 
as  well  as  men  having  the  vote.  During  the  same 
crisis,  new  constitutions  were  drafted  for  the  several 
German  states.  Each  one  of  them  was  made  a  re- 
public and  given  a  popular  form  of  government. 
Even  Prussia  became  democratic. 

The  Revolution  in  Russia.  Far  more  disturbing 
to  the  rest  of  the  world  than  the  upheaval  in  Germany 
was  the  collapse  of  the  Russian  empire.  As  we  have 
seen,  the  czar  narrowly  escaped  losing  his  throne  in 
the  misery  that  grew  out  of  the  war  with  Japan.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  he  finally  met  his  fate.  In  1917 
popular  discontent  in  Russia  broke  out  in  riots.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  create  a  parliament  on  the  Eng- 
lish model.  In  a  short  time  the  discontent  grew 
into  a  revolution.  The  czar  was  deposed  and  after- 
ward murdered. 

The  effort  to  establish  a  republic  along  American 
lines  failed.  All  power  was  seized  by  committees,  or 
Soviets,  of  soldiers,  sailors,  peasants,  and  workingmen. 
These  committees  were  controlled  by  the  Bolsheviki 
(p.  433).  In  the  name  of  the  working  class  they  took 
possession  of  the  government  offices,  the  railways, 
factories,  private  houses,  land,  and  other  property. 
They  decreed :  (i)  that  all  lands,  mills,  mines,  and 
forests  should  belong  to  the  government  and  (2)  that 


447 


448  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

all  should  work  for  the  government.  This  scheme  is 
called  communism  because  all  things  are  owned  and 
used  in  common.  As  we  have  seen  (p.  94),  this  was 
an  idea  sometimes  discussed  by  the  Greeks.  Plato 
argued  in  its  favor.  Aristotle  advanced  strong  argu- 
ments against  it.  All  through  the  centuries  it  was 
discussed,  and  some  attempts  were  made  to  put  it  into 
practice,  but  without  success. 

Under  the  leadership  of  two  men,  Lenine  and 
Trotzky,  the  Bolsheviki,  though  a  small  minority  of 
the  Russian  nation,  managed  to  control  the  govern- 
ment. They  used  the  army  to  put  down  opposi- 
tion. They  suppressed  all  criticism.  They  impris- 
oned or  executed  those  who  rose  against  them. 

Though  the  Bolsheviki  claimed  to  have  nothing 
but  the  interest  of  the  people  at  heart,  they  were  un- 
able to  bring  prosperity  to  Russia.  The  peasants  in- 
sisted on  owning  the  soil  they  tilled;  so  that  point  in 
the  communist  program  had  to  be  given  up.  After 
the  Bolsheviki  had  driven  out  the  capitalists  and  man- 
agers of  factories,  they  found  that  they  did  not  know 
how  to  run  the  business  concerns  themselves.  They 
were  unable  to  supply  the  people  with  manufactured 
goods.  Their  troubles  were  made  worse  because 
several  other  countries,  including  the  United  States, 
refused  to  trade  with  them  because  it  was  uncertain 
whether  foreign  property  would  be  protected  and  just 
debts  paid.  To  all  these  difficulties  were  added  wars 
and  famines.  Several  Russian  generals  raised  armies 


EUROPE   IN  OUR  OWN  TIME 


449 


and  attempted  to  overthrow  the  Bolsheviki.  In  this 
effort  some  of  the  generals  had  the  aid  of  England, 
France,  and  the  United  States. 

In    fact,    there   was    widespread    alarm    among     all 
other    nations.     They    strongly    upheld    the    right    of 


©  Keystone  View  Co..  Inc. 
AMERICAN  RELIEF  FOR  RUSSIAN  CHILDREN 

private  persons  to  own  farms,  houses,  factories,  mines, 
and  other  property.  The  Bolsheviki  appealed  to  the 
workingmen  of  the  world  to  unite,  to  overthrow  their 
governments,  and  to  establish  communism  on  the 
Russian  model.  In  many  parts  of  Europe  working- 
men  gave  heed  to  this  appeal  and  tried  to  seize  the 


450 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


factories.  In  Germany  and  Hungary,  especially,  these 
attempts  resulted  in  much  bloodshed.  Though  they 
were  put  down,  they  left  behind  many  traces  of 
bitterness. 

Meanwhile,  the  Bolsheviki  in  Russia  still  held 
to  the  government.  In  many  ways,  however,  they 
changed  their  tactics.  They  let  the  peasants  keep 
their  land.  They  called  back  managers  to  run  the 
factories.  They  admitted  that  for  one  reason  or  an- 
other their  plans  had  not  brought  prosperity  to  Rus- 
sia and  prepared  to  change  them.  In  time  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  Italy  began  to  trade  again  with 
Russia.  When  a  great  crop  failure  in  1921  led  to  a 
terrible  famine,  the  people  of  the  United  States  gave 
millions  of  dollars  to  aid  the  starving  Russians. 

New  Republics  Formed  from  Russia.  In  addi- 
tion to  undergoing  a  revolution,  the  empire  of  the  czar 
was  broken  into  many  parts.  Four  new  states  on  the 
Baltic  —  Finland,  Esthonia,  Lithuania,  and  Latvia  - 
were  made  independent  republics.  Far  to  the  south, 
beyond  the  Caucasus  mountains,  Georgia  and  other 
provinces  were  freed  from  the  dominion  of  the  Russian 
government.  Away  to  the  east,  a  part  of  Siberia 
broke  off  and  carried  on  its  own  government  as  if  en- 
tirely independent. 

The  Collapse  of  Austria-Hungary.  In  the  general 
overturn  that  followed  the  World  War,  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  empire  also  went  to  pieces.  It  had  been,  as 
we  have  seen  (pp.  356,  371),  a  strange  array  of  many 


EUROPE  IN  OUR  OWN  TIME 


451 


peoples  held  together  by  the  power  of  the  Hapsburgs. 
In  the  name  of  "  nationalism  "  several  of  the  subject 
races  had  long  clamored  for  independence.  After 
the  United  States  declared  war  on  Austria-Hungary, 
President  Wilson  announced  that  all  the  peoples  ruled 
by  the  Hapsburg  emperor  should  have  the  right  to 
choose  their  own  destiny  "  as  members  of  the  family 
of  nations."  That  was  the  same  as  saying  that  Aus- 
tria-Hungary should  be  broken  up. 

That  is  what  happened  when  the  Austrians  and 
Hungarians  were  beaten.  The  Rumanians  in  Hun- 
gary were  joined  with  their  kinsmen  across  the  border 
in  Rumania.  Czechoslovaks  were  united  in  a  re- 
public under  the  presidency  of  a  patriotic  leader, 
Thomas  Masaryk.  To  the  south,  the  Italians  were 
transferred  from  Austria  to  Italy ;  while  the  southern 
Slavic  peoples  were  merged  with  Serbia  in  the  great 
state  of  Yugoslavia.  Hungary,  much  reduced  in 
territory,  was  made  independent.  Austria  was 
brought  down  to  the  level  of  a  petty  state  with  about 
seven  million  German  inhabitants.  The  peace  con- 
ference did  not  permit  the  Austrians  to  join  the  Ger- 
man republic. 

The  break-up  of  Austria  and  Hungary  brought 
about  domestic  troubles  of  the  gravest  kind.  Aus- 
tria, cut  off  from  her  former  provinces  and  burdened 
by  debt,  sank  into  poverty.  Hungary  went  through 
a  revolutionary  crisis.  It  first  fell  into  the  hands  of 
a  communist  party  like  that  in  Russia,  and  later 


452 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


into  the  hands  of  a  military  dictator.  It  was  then 
disturbed  by  an  attempt  of  the  former  ruler,  Charles, 
to  recover  his  throne  —  an  attempt  that  ended  in 
failure. 

All  the  new  little  states   carved  out  of  the  former 


<g)  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 


A  GLIMPSE  OF  MODERN  HUNGARY 


Austrb-Hungarian  empire  quarreled  with  one  another. 
They  suffered  from  business  panics.  The  great  impe- 
rial network  of  railways  was  broken  up.  Tariffs  were 
levied  on  goods  passing  between  separate  countries. 
Separate  systems  of  coinage  were  established.  Indus- 
tries suffered.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the 


EUROPE   IN  OUR  OWN  TIME 


453 


nationalism  that  brought  self-government  can  also 
bring  peace  and  prosperity. 

The  Rebirth  of  Poland.  In  the  general  crash  of 
1918,  the  hopes  of  Poland  rose.  The  independence 
of  that  country  had  been  utterly  blotted  out  since 
the  eighteenth  century.  In  three  "  partitions  "  be- 
ginning in  1772,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  fell  upon 
Poland  and  divided  the  country  among  themselves. 
The  Poles  resisted  heroically.  The  brave  Kosciusko, 
who  fought  for  American  independence  under  Wash- 
ington, led  in  one  of  the  desperate  struggles  for  liberty 
in  his  own  country,  but  was  overcome  by  superior 
numbers.  Again  and  again  the  Poles  tried  to  free 
themselves.  Finally  their  opportunity  came  in  the 
defeat  of  two  of  their  historic  enemies  —  Austria  and 
Germany --and  in  the  collapse  of  the  third,  Russia. 
President  Wilson  included  among  his  "  Fourteen 
Points  "  (First  Book,  p.  444)  the  independence  of 
Poland.  At  the  peace  conference  in  Paris,  the  dream 
of  Kosciusko  was  realized.  The  Poles  were  united 
and  given  a  place  among  the  nations. 

The  Balkan  Region.  All  southeastern  Europe,  the 
source  of  so  much  trouble  to  the  world,  was  likewise 
greatly  changed  by  the  World  War.  The  Serbs  and 
their  kinsmen  were  united  in  the  kingdom  of  Yugo- 
slavia, as  we  have  said  (p.  451).  Rumania  was  en- 
larged by  additions  of  territory  from  Hungary  and 
Russia.  The  Turks  lost  nearly  all  their  territory  in 
Europe.  They  were  allowed  to  keep  their  capital  at 


454 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


EUROPE  IN  OUR  OWN  TIME 


455 


Constantinople,  but  the  Bosporus  was  put  under  the 
control  of  an  international  commission.  The  Greeks 
recalled  their  king,  who  had  been  driven  out  during 
the  war,  and  revised  their  plan  of  government. 

The  Revolt  of  the  Irish.  Seeing  the  Poles,  Finns, 
and  other  races  of  Europe  receive  their  independence, 
the  Irish  became  more  determined  than  ever  to  throw 
off  the  rule  of  Great  Britain.  They  had  been  con- 
quered by  English  armies  centuries  before,  but  they 
had  always  chafed  against  their  forced  union  with 
England.  A  large  party  among  the  Irish  people  had 
demanded  self-government  or  "  home  rule  "  as  early 
as  1828,  and  the  idea  was  steadily  kept  alive. 

After  several  generations  of  argument  and  dispute, 
the  English  government  was  about  to  grant  a  certain 
kind  of  home  rule  when  the  World  War  broke  out. 
While  the  war  was  on,  a  party  known  as  Sinn  Fein 
(pronounced  "  Shin  Fane  "  and  meaning  "  Ourselves  ") 
came  out  boldly  for  independence.  It  declared  Ire- 
land to  be  a  free  republic.  It  elected  a  provisional 
president,  Eamonn  de  Valera.  It  sent  him  to  America 
to  get  support.  Americans,  so  many  of  whom  are 
of  Irish  descent,  were  much  moved  by  monster  public 
meetings.  Irish  sympathizers  even  asked  Congress  to 
recognize  the  Irish  republic. 

Meanwhile  Ireland  was  the  scene  of  dreadful  strife. 
England  refused  to  recognize  the  republic  and  sent 
soldiers  to  put  it  down.  At  the  same  time  a  conflict 
arose  in  Ireland  itself.  The  northern  part  of  the  is- 


456 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


land  had  been  settled  long  ago  by  immigrants  from 
England  and  Scotland  who  had  never  favored  home 
rule  or  independence.  Moreover,  there  were  some 
of  the  native  Irish  who  did  not  approve  of  independ- 


l  it  ic  Co.,  Inc. 


ENGLISH  SOLDIERS  PREPARING  TO  LEAVE  IRELAND 

ence.  Thus  there  were  really  two  wars  in  Ire- 
land -  -  one  between  English  soldiers  and  the  Sinn 
Fein  ;  the  other  between  the  friends  and  the  enemies  of 
independence.  The  long  strife  was  attended  by  all 
the  horrors  of  irregular  warfare.  Murders  and  counter- 
murders  filled  the  island  with  misery. 


EUROPE   IN  OUR  OWN  TIME  457 

Weary  at  last  of  the  bitter  conflict,  both  parties 
were  ready  to  consider  terms  in  1921.  Lloyd  George 
(p.  436)  invited  an  Irish  delegation  to  London  to  dis- 
cuss the  matter.  On  December  6  they  signed  an 
agreement  establishing  the  Irish  Free  State.  It  was 
understood  that  Ireland  was  to  be  one  of  "  the 
group  of  nations  forming  the  British  commonwealth 
of  nations."  The  British  and  Irish  parliaments  soon 
approved  the  agreement  signed  at  London,  and  thus  it 
seemed  that  an  age-long  quarrel  was  to  be  settled 
peaceably.  However,  the  Irish  people  were  divided 
over  the  question  of  accepting  the  agreement. 

Debts,  Taxes,  and  Money.  Every  European 
country  came  out  of  the  World  War  staggering  under 
a  burden  of  debt  and  taxes.  England  owed  about 
$3,500,000,000  in  1914  and  something  like  $40,000,- 
000,000  in  1919.  Taxes  were  likewise  increased,  until 
in  the  case  of  the  very  rich  the  government  took 
more  than  one  third  of  their  net  income.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  war,  the  national  debt  of  Italy  was  reck- 
oned at  $2.90  for  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in 
the  kingdom.  At  the  close  of  the  war  the  debt  stood 
at  about  $11  each.  This  was  a  terrible  burden.  To 
pay  the  interest  on  this  debt,  the  Italian  parliament 
had  to  resort  to  heavy  taxes.  In  fact,  taxes  were  laid 
on  nearly  everything.  There  were,  for  example,  taxes 
on  hotel  bills,  on  articles  of  luxury,  and  on  clothes, 
as  well  as  on  houses,  lands,  and  incomes.  The  Ger- 
mans had,  in  addition  to  the  cost  of  their  war,  the 


458  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

obligation   of  paying  billions  of  dollars  to  the  victors 
to  meet  the  heavy  damages  done  during  the  war. 

In  short,  every  European  country  was  very  much 
like  a  person  who  has  most  of  his  belongings  in  a  pawn 
shop  and  little  prospect  of  ever  getting  them  out 
again.  Furthermore,  they  had  all  issued  great  quan- 
tities of  paper  money.  Silver  and  gold  were  driven 
out  of  circulation  except  in  England  and  paper 
bills  took  their  places.  The  money  of  Europe,  as 
measured  in  American  dollars,  fell  in  value  until  the 
results  were  absurd.  The  Russian  ruble,  once  worth 
fifty  cents,  dropped  steadily  until  it  took  several  hun- 
dred to  equal  one  cent.  The  German  mark,  once 
reckoned  at  twenty-five  cents,  fell  below  a  half  of  a 
cent.  The  Italian  lire,  worth  twenty  cents  before  the 
war,  was  worth  less  than  four  cents  in  1921.  This, 
of  course,  made  it  extremely  difficult  for  the  countries 
having  money  of  such  low  value  to  trade  with  the 
United  States.  They  could  not  afford  to  buy  Ameri- 
can goods.  This  helped  to  bring  on  a  business  depres- 
sion in  our  own  country. 

INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

The  Armed  Peace.  The  close  of  the  World  War 
diminished  none  of  the  ancient  grudges  of  Europe. 
Indeed  it  left  most  of  the  old  ones  still  intact,  and 
added  many  new  ones.  It  brought  no  end  to  the  huge 
expenditures  for  war  purposes.  Germany,  it  is  true, 
was  forcibly  disarmed ;  but  France,  fearing  a  revival 


EUROPE  IN  OUR  OWN  TIME  459 

of  German  power,  kept  an  immense  standing  army. 
England  and  Japan  continued  to  enlarge  their  navies 
(p.  428).  Russia  kept  a  great  army  ready  for  any  emer- 
gency. The  new  republics  created  out  of  Russia  and 
Austria-Hungary  quarreled  with  one  another  over 
boundaries  and  many  other  matters.  The  Greeks  and 
Turks  immediately  began  to  fight  over  territory.  The 
Poles  and  Russians  fought  for  a  variety  of  reasons. 
The  Germans  began  to  write  and  publish  books  about 
"  the  next  war."  In  short,  instead  of  putting  an  end 
to  war,  the  peace  signed  at  Paris  seemed  to  be  more 
like  a  truce  than  a  final  settlement. 

Trade  Hampered  by  Rivalries.  The  new  states 
created  by  the  war  began  at  once  to  put  up  tariffs 
against  goods  from  neighboring  states.  In  the  old 
days,  one  could  travel  from  the  French  to  the  Russian 
border  by  passing  through  only  one  country.  After 
the  war  it  was  necessary  to  go  through  three  or  four. 
This  meant  that  at  every  frontier  travelers  had  their 
baggage  searched.  Since  free  trade  among  the  peo- 
ples of  Europe  was  hampered  by  so  many  barriers, 
business  was  bad  everywhere.  Some  countries  could 
not  get  raw  materials  and  had  to  close  their  factories. 
In  other  countries  mills  were  shut  down  because  the 
output  could  not  be  sold.  In  general,  Europe  sank 
into  a  distressing  state.  There  was  unemployment 
and  poverty  for  working  people  and  ruin  for  capitalists 
and  business  men.  In  short,  Europe  was  "  sick " 
and  apparently  could  not  find  a  way  to  get  well  again. 


460  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

The  United  States  and  Demoralized  Europe.  Af- 
ter the  war  was  over,  the  United  States  withdrew 
nearly  all  its  soldiers  from  Europe.  Only  a  few  thou- 
sand were  left  in  Germany  awaiting  the  final  settle- 
ment. At  the  same  time,  the  United  States  refused 
to  join  the  League  of  Nations  formed  at  Paris  in  1919, 
and  made  a  separate  peace  with  Germany  and  Austria 
in  1921  (p.  439).  It  looked  as  if  our  country  were  try- 
ing to  withdraw  as  rapidly  as  possible  from  Euro- 
pean affairs. 

Complete  withdrawal,  however,  was  impossible.  In 
the  first  place,  our  former  associates  in  the  war, 
especially  England  and  France,  owed  us  billions  of 
dollars  borrowed  during  the  struggle.  Years  passed 
by  and  still  they  did  not  arrange  to  pay  interest  or 
principal.  How  and  when  they  could  pay  became  a 
serious  problem.  They  did  not  have  the  gold  with 
which  to  pay.  If  they  paid  in  goods,  that  would  mean 
"  dumping  "  manufactured  articles  into  America  to 
the  injury  of  American  industries. 

In  addition  to  this  huge  war  debt,  Europe  owed 
private  American  capitalists  immense  sums.  Nearly 
all  the  countries  of  the  Old  World  had  turned  to 
America  for  money.  France  had  borrowed  huge 
sums  here.  So  had  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark.  Even  European  cities,  like  Paris,  Berne, 
and  several  Danish  towns,  had  borrowed  from 
American  bankers.  Whenever  one  of  the  loans  fell 
due,  it  was  customary  to  float  another  loan  in  America 


EUROPE   IN  OUR  OWN  TIME  461 

to  get  money  to  pay  it.  Often  seven  or  eight  per  cent 
interest  was  charged  on  such  loans,  whereas  most 
Liberty  Bonds  drew  only  four  and  one  quarter  per  cent. 
To  help  the  business  of  money  lending,  branches  of 
American  banks  were  opened  in  England,  France, 
and  other  countries.  In  this  way  the  United  States, 
which  had  once  borrowed  money  in  Europe  to  develop 
its  lands  and  factories,  now  became  the  banker  for 
Europe. 

The  United  States  was  also  affected  by  the  state 
of  European  trade.  Before  the  World  War,  America 
sold  goods  to  the  annual  value  of  about  $1,500,000,000 
in  Europe.  During  the  war,  the  exports,  mainly 
war  materials  and  supplies  for  the  armies,  multiplied 
threefold --this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  business 
with  Austria  and  Germany  was  stopped  altogether. 
After  the  war  came  a  great  "  slump."  The  demand 
for  war  supplies  was  cut  off  entirely.  The  European 
countries,  in  debt  and  impoverished,  could  not  buy 
heavily  in  American  markets.  American  trade  with 
Russia  disappeared  almost  entirely.  Trade  with  Ger- 
many, once  running  into  the  hundreds  -  of  millions 
each  year,  could  not  quickly  be  restored  to  its  former 
importance. 

All  these  things  working  together  seriously  hurt 
American  business.  Factories  and  mills  cut  down 
their  output,  turned  off  numbers  of  their  employees, 
and  in  many  instances  shut  up  entirely.  Thus  in 
peace,  as  in  war,  it  was  seen  that  the  state  of  affairs 


462  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

in  Europe  was  a  matter  of  concern  to  America.  Once 
again  it  was  made  clear  that  America  does  not  live  to 
herself  alone.  The  price  of  wheat  in  the  warehouses 
of  Minneapolis,  the  wages  of  New  England  factory 
workers,  and  the  earnings  of  Southern  cotton  planters 
depend  in  a  large  measure  upon  the  business  pros- 
perity of  the  world. 

The  Orient.  Events  in  the  Far  East  made  this 
dependence  still  plainer.  Japan  came  out  of  the  con- 
flict richer  and  more  powerful  than  ever.  She  had 
crushed  one  of  her  great  rivals,  Germany,  and  had 
seized  German  property  and  privileges  in  China.  She 
was  further  strengthened  by  the  downfall  of  Rus- 
sia, another  serious  rival.  Thus  Japan  had  a  free 
hand  in  extending  her  trade  on  the  mainland  of  Asia. 
Having  learned  from  the  World  War  the  importance 
of  a  strong  navy,  Japan  laid  out  a  great  program  for 
increasing  the  number  of  her  battleships.  United 
with  Great  Britain  by  an  alliance,  Japan  prepared  to 
become  the  ruler  of  the  Orient.  She  announced  a 
sort  of  Monroe  Doctrine  to  the  effect  that  everything 
Oriental  was  mainly  her  affair.  Thus  the  slumber- 
ing nation  which  the  United  States  had  helped  to 
awaken  more  than  fifty  years  before  had  become  one 
of  the  first  powers  of  the  world. 

The  rise  of  Japanese  power  brought  new  problems 
for  the  United  States.  Japan  claimed  the  right  to 
direct  affairs  in  weak  and  disorderly  China,  where  the 
citizens  of  many  countries,  including  Americans,  had 


EUROPE  IN  OUR  OWN  TIME 


463 


trade,  factories,  railways,  and  mines.  With  the  in- 
crease of  her  navy  and  the  growth  of  her  population, 
Japan  became  very  sensitive  about  the  treatment 
of  her  citizens  in  foreign  countries.  Especially  did 
she  resent  their  exclusion  from  the  United  States  and 
from  Australia.  This  was  very  embarrassing.  It  dis- 
turbed Japan's  close  ally,  Great  Britain,  because  Aus- 


Vtew  Co.,  inc. 


A  MODERN  IRON  MILL  IN  CHINA 


tralia  is  a  part  of  the  British  empire.  It  raised 
alarm  in  the  United  States,  for  the  Americans  had 
firmly  made  up  their  minds  to  exclude  the  Japanese. 
The  eyes  of  the  world,  therefore,  became  fixed  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  where  three  great  nations,  Japan,  Eng- 
land, and  the  United  States,  had  vital  interests  and 
China  was  trying  to  defend  herself. 


464  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

The  Great  International  Conference  at  Washing- 
ton. In  view  of  this  state  of  affairs,  President 
Harding,  in  1921,  invited  England,  France,  Italy, 
Japan,  Belgium,  The  Netherlands,  Portugal,  and  China 
to  send  delegates  to  Washington  to  discuss  ways  and 
means  of  settling  disputes  in  the  Pacific  and  of  cutting 
down  expenditures  for  armies  and  navies.  They  all 
eagerly  accepted  the  invitation.  Their  eagerness 
showed  that  they,  too,  were  alarmed  over  the  plight 
of  mankind  and  wished  to  find  some  way  to  a  better 
understanding  among  the  nations.  It  was  a  historic 
moment  when,  in  November,  1921,  the  ministers  of 
these  nations  met  in  Washington  to  consider  the 
fate  of  the  world.  Mr.  Hughes,  our  Secretary  of  State, 
Startled  every  one  by  proposing  an  immediate  reduc- 
tion in  the  navies  of  the  leading  countries.  This 
promised  to  cut  down  the  heavy  expenses  for  naval 
armaments.  Many  of  the  troublesome  questions  con- 
nected with  China  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  were 
discussed  at  great  length  with  a  view  to  keeping  the 
peace  in  the  Far  East. 

Before  the  conference  closed  in  February,  1922, 
many  important  steps  had  been  taken.  The  leading 
powers  agreed  to  limit  the  number  of  their  warships  for 
a  period  of  ten  years.  England,  France,  Japan,  and 
the  United  States  signed  a  "four  power"  treaty  prom- 
ising to  respect  one  another's  islands  in  the  Pacific 
and  to  hold  conferences  when  serious  disputes  arose 
over  them.  The  alliance  between  England  and  Japan 


EUROPE   IN  OUR  OWN  TIME  465 

was  publicly  dissolved.  The  powers  agreed  to  limit 
the  use  of  submarines  and  poison  gas  in  warfare.  Ja- 
pan bound  herself  to  give  Shantung  back  to  China  on 
certain  conditions.  The  independence  of  China  was 
guaranteed ;  equal  rights  to  trade  in  China  were  pro- 
claimed. After  they  were  drawn  up,  these  treaties 
were  laid  before  the  various  countries  concerned  for 
approval. 

The  conference  showed  how  deeply  America  was 
involved  in  world  affairs.  Hereafter  other  countries 
will  write  an  American  background  to  their  history. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  i.  Our  study  of  previous  wars  has  taught  us  that  a  long 
conflict  is  likely  to  be  followed  by  a  period  of  reaction.  In  what 
ways  was  the  World  War  of  1914-18  more  serious  than  any  war  in 
the  past  ?  Why  were  the  difficulties  of  a  satisfactory  settlement 
much  greater  than  in  other  wars  ?  2.  What  changes  took  place 
in  the  government  of  Germany  as  a  result  of  the  German  revolu- 
tion of  1918  ?  3.  How  did  the  results  of  the  Russian  revolution 
differ  from  those  of  the  German  revolution  ?  4.  What  is  meant 
by  "communism"  ?  It  is  generally  agreed  that  communism  in 
Russia  has  been  a  most  disastrous  failure.  Why  would  communism 
be  likely  to  fail  in  any  great  modern  nation  ?  5.  The  government 
of  Russia  under  the  Bolsheviki  is,  in  theory,  a  government  by  the 
working  classes,  farmers,  laborers,  and  factory  workers.  In  your 
judgment,  is  this  true  democracy  ?  Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 
In  actual  practice,  the  government  by  the  Bolsheviki,  most  people 
believe,  has  not  been  even  a  government  by  the  working  people, 
but  really  a  government  by  a  very  small  group  of  men.  Why 
would  popular  government  of  any  sort  be  difficult  to  establish  in 
Russia  ?  (Think  of  the  size  of  the  country  and  remember  that 


466        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

more  than  half  of  the  people  are  unable  to  read.)  6.  How  were 
the  Polish  people  divided  in  1772  ?  In  what  way  did  the  decision 
of  the  Peace  Conference  in  1919  "realize  the  dream  of  Kosciusko"  ? 
7.  Why  should  the  nations  of  western  Europe  object  to  Turkish 
control  of  the  Bosporus  ?  What  have  they  done  to  prevent  such 
control  ?  8.  How  did  the  Irish  Free  States  come  into  existence  ? 
What  other  countries  belong  to  the  "  British  Commonwealth  of 
Nations"  ?  What  important  British  possessions  are  still  not 
parts  of  this  commonwealth  ?  9.  WThat  is  meant  by  a  "national 
debt"  ?  From  whom  did  our  country  borrow  money  during  the 
World  War  ?  In  what  ways  do  the  national  debts  of  the  European 
countries  resemble  our  national  debt  ?  Do  they  differ  in  any 
important  respect  ?  What  is  meant  by  interest  on  a  debt  ?  How 
is  the  interest  on  our  national  debt  paid  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  the  principal  of  a  debt  and  the  interest  ?  10.  We  use 
paper  money  in  this  country,  but  not  the  kind  of  paper  money 
that  the  European  countries  have  issued.  What  is  the  difference  ? 
Do  you  know  of  any  occasion  when  our  government  issued  paper 
money  similar  to  that  which  is  now  used  by  the  European  nations  ? 
II.  i.  Why  is  the  period  following  the  Peace  Conference  re- 
ferred to  as  one  of  "armed  peace"  ?  2.  In  what  ways  would 
the  formation  of  so  many  new  nations  make  trade  among  the 
European  countries  difficult  ?  3.  How  has  the  poverty  of  Europe 
affected  our  country  ?  4.  What  events  led  to  the  calling  of  the 
Washington  Conference  on  the  Limitation  of  Armaments,  and 
what  were  the  important  results  of  this  conference  ? 


CHAPTER    XVIII 
THE   CULTURE  OF   THE   MODERN  AGE 

WHAT  a  marvelous  sweep  there  is  in  the  history  of 
mankind  from  the  stone  age  to  the  age  of  electricity  ! 
The  record  opens  with  the  poor  and  almost  helpless 
cave  man  cowering  before  the  lightning's  flash ;  it 
closes  with  Marconi  harnessing  electricity  to  send  mes- 
sages around  the  world  by  the  wireless  telegraph.  The 
primitive  herdsman  counts  his  flock  by  notches  on 
a  stick ;  the  modern  mathematician  measures  the 
93,000,000  miles  between  the  earth  and  the  sun  and 
reckons  the  time  that  it  takes  light  to  fly  to  our 
planet  from  the  most  distant  star. 

The  primitive  tribes  of  ancient  days  looked  upon  ha- 
tred of  their  neighbors  as  the  greatest  virtue  and  waged 
endless  wars  on  one  another.  Modern  nations  do  not 
consider  all  foreigners  "  barbarians  "  as  did  the  Greeks  ; 
nor  do  they  look  upon  constant  warfare  as  natural  and 
necessary.  They  are  eager  to  exchange  goods  and  ideas 
and  to  welcome  travelers.  Though  wars  continue  to 
plague  mankind,  there  are  millions  of  people  all  over 
the  earth  who  are  laboring  to  find  a  plan  for  ending  that 
savage  way  of  settling  quarrels.  The  history  of  man- 
kind is  indeed  a  wonderful  story.  In  spite  of  many 

467 


468  OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

sad,  dark  pages,  it  reveals  to  us  a  growth  of  human 
powers  that  fills  us  with  awe.  Moreover,  it  inspires 
us  to  act  well  our  part  in  our  day,  so  that  the  future 
may  be  more  splendid  than  the  past. 

The  Preceding  Ages  and  Modern  Times  Contrasted. 
The  story  is  all  one,  though  we  have  divided  it,  for 
convenience,  into  ancient,  medieval,  and  modern  times. 
The  beginnings  of  most  of  our  ideas  may  be  traced 
back  through  the  middle  ages  to  the  nations  of  an- 
tiquity, as  we  have  seen.  Still  the  modern  age  presents 
some  very  clear  contrasts  to  the  ages  that  preceded  it  : 

I.  We  know,  for  one  thing,  a  vast  deal  more  about 
the  world  --  about  the  earth  at  our  feet,  the  hills  that 
tower  above  us,  the  stars  that  shine  down  upon  us, 
and  life  around  us --than  did  our  remote  ancestors. 
Medieval  learning  was  mainly  religious.  It  had  to  do 
with  the  world  to  come ;  and  the  priests,  or  clergy, 
were  the  only  learned  class.  Modern  learning  deals 
chiefly  with  this  world.  In  the  modern  age  we  have 
thousands  of  teachers,  scholars,  and  scientists  who  are 
not  clergymen. 

.  2.  In  the  modern  age  too  —  and  this  is  very  impor- 
tant --  knowledge  is  far  more  widely  distributed  among 
the  people  than  in  the  former  ages.  Schools,  museums, 
newspapers,  books,  magazines,  lectures,  motion  pictures, 
and  the  radio  convey  to  the  masses  the  information 
that  was  once  limited  to  a  mere  handful  of  students. 

3.  The  modern  age  is  a  ;c  progressive  "'  age.  In 
medieval  times,  there  was  little  change  in  the  way 


THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    MODERN    AGE  469 

people  lived  and  worked.  The  idea  of  constant  im- 
provement in  implements,  tools,  machines,  business 
methods,  home  comforts,  and  travel  was  not  the  lead- 
ing idea.  To-day,  in  every  field,  "  improvement  "  is 
the  most  striking  watchword, 

4.  In  the  modern  age,  literature,  art,  science,  and 
opportunity  are  not  for  the  privileged  few  only,  but 
for  the  many.  Any  one,  man  or  woman,  boy  or  girl, 
who  has  talent  may  choose  almost  any  calling.  Even 
the  old  ideal  that  every  person  who  worked  at  any  of 
the  arts  should  first  be  trained  in  ancient  models  has 
been  scornfully,  too  scornfully,  rejected. 

In  the  modern  age  a  writer  or  artist  may  pick  his 
own  subjects.  He  is  not  dependent,  as  in  ancient 
Egypt,  upon  the  whim  of  a  king  or,  as  in  the  middle  ages, 
entirely  upon  the  taste  of  some  rich  person.  The  mar- 
ket, so  to  speak,  is  now  very  wide  and  varied.  There 
are  newspapers,  magazines,  and  publishers  eager  to 
discover  new  genius.  There  are  hundreds  of  institu- 
tions for  training.  There  are  scholarships,  prizes,  and 
exhibits  which  permit  those  with  special  abilities  to 
pursue  the  lines  of  work  for  which  they  are  fitted. 

MODERN  KNOWLEDGE 

Its  Variety.  The  range  of  modern  knowledge  is 
very  wide.  We  have  only  to  take  up  a  good  encyclo- 
pedia and  run  through  its  thousands  of  topics  in  order 
to  see  how  many  things  have  been  carefully  studied. 
The  variety  is  always  increasing.  Fresh  topics  are  be- 


470        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

ing  added  daily.  An  encyclopedia  grows  out  of  date 
in  a  few  years,  nay,  in  a  few  months.  Think  of  the 
topics  that  were  not  included  at  all  fifty  years  ago, 
such  as  airplanes,  wireless  telegraphy,  radio  telephones, 
automobiles,  and  gas  engines,  to  mention  only  a  few. 

Our  knowledge  is  not  only  more  varied  ;  it  is  more 
accurate  and  can  be  more  safely  depended  on.  In 
many  of  the  medieval  histories  all  kinds  of  rumor  and 
idle  tales  were  set  down  as  gospel  truth  by  the  old 
chroniclers.  To-day  great  efforts  are  being  made  to 
write  histories  that  present  facts  rather  than  rumor. 
Compare,  too,  the  geography  that  any  present-day 
school  child  may  have  with  the  poor  collection  of  maps 
that  Columbus  owned.  Columbus  knew  very  little 
about  lands  outside  of  western  Europe,  and  much  that 
he  believed  was  wrong.  For  a  small  sum  one  may  buy 
a  geography  to-day  that  plots  out  with  painstaking 
accuracy  and  describes  clearly  the  most  distant  lands, 
seas,  islands,  and  rivers.  It  tells  us  not  only  about  the 
shape  of  the  continents,  but  also  about  the  peoples  of 
various  lands,  their  occupations,  the  climate,  soil,  and 
products.  The  modern  world  knows  far  more  than 
the  middle  ages  and  what  it  knows  is  more  accurate. 
It  even  knows  more  of  the  middle  ages  themselves 
than  the  wisest  men  then  living  knew. 

Natural  Science.  It  is  in  the  field  of  natural  sci- 
ence especially  that  the  modern  times  show  the  greatest 
progress.  Even  in  the  oldest  science,  astronomy,  won- 
derful steps  have  been  taken.  Men  like  Galileo,  Co- 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MODERN  AGE 


471 


©  Keystone  View  Co..  Inc. 
A  MODERN  PHOTOGRAPH  OF  THE  FULL  MOON 

pernicus,  and  Newton  revealed  to  mankind  the  starry 
heavens  and  their  laws,  the  revolution  of  the  planets 
and  the  orbits  of  the  comets. 

Ever  since  the  seventeenth  century  startling  prog- 
ress has  been  made  in  every  field  of  medicine.  William 
Harvey,  in  1628,  published  his  great  book  showing 
the  working  of  the  human  heart  and  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  through  the  body.  Diseases  which  were 


472 


OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 


once  thought  hopeless  can  now  be  cured.  The  surgeon 
can  perform  delicate  operations  without  torturing  his 
patient.  Such  scourges  as  smallpox  and  yellow  fever 
have  been  almost  entirely  stamped  out.  Ways  have 
been  found  to  control  diphtheria  and  typhoid  fever. 

Fewer  persons  die 
in  infancy  and  child- 
hood, and  many 
more  live  to  old  age. 
In  chemistry,  the 
discoveries  of  the 
modern  age  have 
been  brilliant  and 
startling.  Chemists 
have  broken  up 
simple  things,  such 
as  a  lump  of  coal  or 
a  grain  of  corn,  into 
an  astoundingnum- 
ber  of  elements. 
Out  of  coal  the 
chemist  can  make, 
amongother  things, 
illuminating  gas, 
tar,  oils  of  various 
kinds,  paints,  perfumes,  dyestuffs,  flavoring  extracts,  in- 
digo, explosives,  roofing  materials,  paving  materials, 
and  lampblack.  Corn  was  once  used  only  as  grain 
for  cattle  and  hogs,  or  when  ground  into  meal  as  food 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  inc. 

MADAME  CURIE,  A  FAMOUS  FRENCH  SCIENTIST, 
IN  HER  LABORATORY 


THE  CULTURE  OF   THE  MODERN  AGE  473 

for  mankind.  Out  of  corn  the  chemist  to-day  makes 
table  oil,  soap,  glycerin,  rubber  substitute,  table  starch, 
laundry  starch,  syrup,  sugar,  glue,  and  oil  cake. 

Students  of  animal  life,  called  zoologists,  have 
studied,  classified,  and  described  millions  of  forms 
of  animal  life,  ranging  from  the  tiniest  creatures  that 
can  be  seen  only  under  the  microscope  to  the  giant 
beasts  of  the  African  jungle.  Students  of  rocks,  geolo- 
gists, have  studied  the  layers  of  the  earth's  surface 
and  the  way  in  which  metals  and  stones  have  been 
scattered  about.  They  have  read  the  story  of  creation 
as  revealed  in  plain,  mountain,  river,  and  valley.  The 
botanists  (students  of  plants)  have  done  the  same  thing 
for  all  plant  life.  They  have  discovered  tiny  plants 
called  bacteria,  some  of  which  are  very  harmful  and 
others  very  useful.  They  have  found  ways  of  improv- 
ing plants  and  even  of  developing  new  kinds  of  fruits 
and  vegetables.  Chemists  and.  botanists  have  united  in 
discovering  the  kinds  of  plants  best  suited  to  certain  soils 
and  the  kinds  of  fertilizers  that  produce  the  best  crops. 

Workers  in  the  field  of  physics  have  revealed  the 
workings  of  natural  forces.  They  know  how  to  gen- 
erate and  use  electricity.  They  can  tell  beforehand 
how  much  power  a  rushing  river  will  give  if  made  to 
turn  a  water  wheel.  They  can  tell  how  strong  a  piece 
of  steel  must  be  to  bear  a  certain  load,  whether  it  be 
used  in  a  bridge  or  in  a  towering  office  building.  In  all 
the  fairy  tales  there  is  nothing  more  wonderful  than 
in  the  true  stories  of  modern  natural  science. 


474  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Knowledge  of  the  Human  Race.  Along  with  the 
study  of  the  natural  world  inhabited  by  mankind  there 
has  been  undertaken  an  equally  zealous  study  of  man- 
kind itself.  One  group  of  workers,  called  archeolo gists, 
has  dug  up  the  ruins  of  ancient  civilizations  and  shown 
us  how  the  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  Greeks,  and  Ro- 
mans lived.  Another  group  has  studied  the  North 
American  Indians,  the  Eskimos  of  the  North,  the  pyg- 
mies of  Africa,  and  many  other  backward  races,  and  de- 
scribed their  habits,  their  languages,  and  their  religions. 
Historians,  instead  of  relying  on  idle  tales  and  rumors, 
have  sought  to  separate  the  truth  from  error  and  to 
tell  as  accurately  as  possible  about  the  past  of  hu- 
manity. 

Economists  have  studied  the  ways  in  which  goods  are 
produced  and  distributed  among  the  various  classes  of 
each  nation.  They  keep  track  of  the  bales  of  cotton, 
the  pairs  of  shoes,  the  yards  of  cloth,  and  the  countless 
other  products  turned  out  each  year.  They  receive 
reports  from  all  parts  of  the  world  as  to  the  way  in  which 
the  farm  crops  are  growing,  and  make  shrewd  guesses 
as  to  the  prices  of  corn,  wheat,  and  cotton  for  the  com- 
ing season.  Economists  also  study  the  ways  of  ad- 
vancing business  prosperity,  how  to  improve  the  con- 
ditions of  wage  earners,  and  how  to  get  rid  of  unde- 
served poverty.  The  human  race --its  habits,  cus- 
toms, beliefs,  industries,  crimes,  diseases,  and  achieve- 
ments --  receives  in  the  modern  age  more  attention 
than  ever  before  in  history. 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MODERN  AGE 


475 


How  Knowledge  Is  Distributed  and  Used.  Modern 
knowledge,  unlike  that  of  the  ancient  world  or  the 
middle  ages,  is  not  limited  to  a  single  class  —  a  small 
group  of  learned  men.  It  is  spread  broadcast  through- 
out the  length  and  breadth  of  the  civilized  world. 
Once  it  was  the  excep- 
tional person  who 
knew  how  to  read  and 
write.  Now,  in  our 
country,  in  western 
and  northern  Europe, 
in  Canada,  Australia, 
South  Africa,  New 
Zealand,  and  in  Japan, 
it  is  the  exceptional 
person  who  does  not. 
Newspapers,  maga- 
zines, books,  and  mo- 
tion pictures  carry 
daily  to  the  people  the 
results  of  study  in 
every  field.  In  the 
middle  ages  only  a  very 
rich  man  could  have  a 
library  of  any  size. 
Owing  to  the  printing 
press,  any  one  can  now  buy  for  a  few  dollars  an  ency- 
clopedia or  a  small  library  of  informing  books. 

Thanks  to  the  public  schools,  no  one  needs  to  have  the 


©  Ewing  Galloway 
PRINTING  A  MODERN  NEWSPAPER 


476       OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

gateways  of  knowledge  closed  against  him.  "  Is  it  not 
strange,"  wrote  a  very  wise  man,  "  that  a  little  child 
should  be  heir  to  the  whole  world  ?  "  Yet  it  is  true. 
A  little  child  taught  to  read  and  write  and  set  on  the 
way  to  knowledge  at  school  or  in  the  home  is  heir  to  all 
the  wisdom  of  the  ages  --to  all  the  past.  He  is  there- 
fore better  prepared  to  understand  his  own  times.  In 
an  age  of  democracy  when  all  adults,  men  and  women 
alike,  take  part  in  their  own  government,  it  is  fitting  that 
knowledge  should  be  democratic ;  that  is,  open  to  all. 

Modern  knowledge  is  also  applied  knowledge.  The 
ancient  ruling  classes  scorned  mechanics  and  trades. 
Learned  men  did  not  apply  their  knowledge.  They  sat 
about  and  talked  and  dreamed  and  wrote.  The  clergy 
of  the  middle  ages  did  not  look  down  upon  honest  work, 
but  they  did  not  labor  hard  at  improving  plows,  invent- 
ing better  water  wheels,  or  making  fields  to  yield  larger 
crops.  In  other  words,  they  were  not  mainly  con- 
cerned with  using  their  knowledge  to  lift  the  burden 
from  mankind.  Modern  knowledge,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  used  to  solve  man's  problems.  Chemists  not  only 
learn  the  substances  of  which  the  world  is  made ;  they 
apply  chemistry  in  all  manner  of  ways  from  multiplying 
the  bushels  of  corn  that  can  be  grown  in  a  field  to  kill- 
ing the  disease  germs  that  lurk  in  a  fever-laden  swamp. 
Men  and  women  to-day  want  to  know  things  not  merely 
for  the  sake  of  knowing,  but  for  the  sake  of  conquering 
disease,  pain,  drudgery,  and  poverty --for  the  sake  of 
making  the  world  a  happier  place  in  which  to  live. 


THE   CULTURE   OF  THE   MODERN  AGE  477 

THE  IDEA  OF  PROGRESS  AND  REFORM 

The  Idea.  Life  in  the  middle  ages,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  slow  to  change.  The  peasant  in  the  field,  the  smith 
at  his  forge,  the  housewife  at  the  fireside,  went  about 
their  duties  in  almost  the  same  way  from  generation  to 
generation.  In  modern  times  change  is  continuous.  A 
business  man  throws  aside  a  machine  that  cost  thousands 
of  dollars  because  a  better  one  has  been  invented.  The 
housewife  cooks  with  wood,  then  with  coal,  then  with 
gas,  then  with  electricity.  The  farmer  sells  his  oxen 
and  buys  horses,  sells  his  horses  and  buys  a  tractor  and 
an  automobile.  The  skilled  machinist  moves  from  Scot- 
land, Italy,  or  Rumania  to  South  America  or  the  United 
States  to  better  his  living  conditions. 

The  idea  of  progress  was  not  wholly  unknown  to  the 
ancients.  The  Roman  poet  Lucretius  took  serious  note 
of  the  fact  that  mankind  had  passed  through  the  stone, 
bronze,  and  iron  ages.  Other  ancient  writers  sometimes 
spoke  of  the  movement  of  the  human  race  from  stage  to 
stage.  But  it  was  the  nineteenth  century  which  made 
the  idea  of  growth  the  very  center  of  all  thought.  Three 
great  Englishmen,  Charles  Darwin,  Herbert  Spencer, 
and  Thomas  H.  Huxley,  did  more  than  any  others  to 
apply  it.  Out  of  their  teachings  rose  the  common  be- 
lief of  scientists  that  the  world  we  see  about  us,  from 
the  plants  in  the  garden  to  the  ideas  in  our  brains,  is  the 
product  of  slow,  gradual  growth  extending  over  thousands 
of  years. 


478  OUR  OLD  WORLD   BACKGROUND 

Improvement  —  the  Watchword.  Coupled  with  the 
idea  that  the  world  is  constantly  changing  is  another  idea 
equally  important :  namely,  that  by  taking  thought  and 
making  combined  efforts  mankind  may  make  improve- 
ments in  every  direction.  Humanity  is  at  work  to  im- 
prove schools,  highways,  houses,  prisons,  public  health, 
and  charitable  institutions.  Business  men,  working 
people,  teachers  —  men  and  women  —  have  come  to- 
gether, or  organized,  for  the  purpose  of  bettering  the 
lot  of  mankind.  Societies  or  organizations  have  been 
established  to  oppose  war,  to  fight  disease  and  poverty, 
and  to  help  little  children.  There  is  scarcely  an  ill  that 
besets  mankind  which  is  not  studied  and  attacked  in  the 
modern  age.  If  a  plague  sweeps  down  upon  a  country,  its 
inhabitants  do  not  view  it  as  an  act  of  God,  as  they  did 
in  former  times.  They  seek  to  discover  the  germ  that 
caused  it  and  to  destroy  it  by  science. 

Modern  political  parties  in  Europe  are  all  striving 
for  reform  and  improvement.  There  is  not  a  party  that 
has  for  its  motto  :  "  Keep  things  just  as  they  are."  All 
agree  that  the  life  of  the  people  must  be  made  better ; 
that  poverty,  disease,  unemployment,  and  overcrowd- 
ing in  the  great  cities  must  be  attacked  and  removed. 
"  I  cannot  help  hoping  and  believing  that  before  this 
generation  has  passed  away  we  shall  have  advanced  a 
great  step  toward  that  good  time  when  poverty  and 
wretchedness  and  human  degradation  .  .  .  will  be  as 
remote  to  the  people  of  this  country  as  the  wolves 
which  once  infested  its  forests."  These  are  the  words 


THE   CULTURE   OF   THE   MODERN   AGE  479 

of  Lloyd  George,  the  premier  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
foremost  political  leader  in  that  country.  They  fairly 
represent  the  spirit  and  purpose  of  the  modern  age. 

To  give  mankind  true  prosperity  is  the  aim  of  the 
modern  statesman.  The  ancient  world  accepted  pov- 
erty and  misery  as  the  fate  of  all  who  labored.  Thus 
we  see  how  far  mankind  has  advanced  since  the  days 
of  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome.  Not  even  the  wisest 
Greek  philosopher  included  the  whole  mass  of  people  in 
his  plans  for  a  better  world.  He  thought  only  of  the 
richer  and  more  favored  classes  and  left  out  of  account 
those  who  toiled. 

The  Churches  and  Reform.  Religion  as  well  as 
science  has  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  new  idea  of 
progress.  The  improvement  of  the  life  of  mankind  is 
one  of  the  noblest  ends  of  Christian  service.  A  powerful 
Protestant  church  in  England  declared  that  "the  efforts 
of  Christians  should  be  directed  not  merely  to  attack- 
ing particular  evils  as  they  arise,  but  to  discovering  and 
removing  the  roots  from  which  they  spring." 

In  1891  the  great  leader  of  the  Catholic  Church,  Pope 
Leo  XIII,  declared,  "  There  can  be  no  question  what- 
ever that  some  remedy  must  be  found  and  found  quickly 
for  the  misery  and  wretchedness  pressing  so  heavily  and 
so  unjustly  at  this  moment  upon  the  vast  majority  of  the 
working  classes."  Thus  from  the  Eternal  City,  where 
Roman  emperors  had  once  ruled  with  utter  disregard  for 
the  fate  of  the  masses,  came  a  call  to  lighten  the  burdens 
of  mankind. 


480       OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

All  over  Europe,  churches  of  every  denomination  have 
added  to  their  religious  and  charitable  duties  that  of 
aiding  in  many  movements  for  human  betterment. 
They  have  set  before  them  the  goal  of  a  better  hu- 
manity in  this  world  as  well  as  the  salvation  of  souls  for 
the  next  world. 

LITERATURE   AND   ART 

Contrast  with  Ancient  Times.  The  ancient  forms  of 
literature  —  poetry,  drama,  and  history -- have  all 
been  continued  in  the  modern  age.  During  the  past 
three  hundred  years  all  European  countries  have  made 
splendid  additions  to  the  general  store  of  literature. 
The  English  Shakespeare  and  the  German  Goethe  rank 
with  the  best  poets  that  the  ancient  world  produced. 

In  our  time  there  is  a  wider  distribution  of  learning 
among  the  people.  Greek  and  Roman  authors  wrote 
usually  for  a  small  class  of  persons.  Modern  authors 
write  for  the  masses  and  are  hardly  satisfied  unless  their 
books  are  read  by  the  people  of  many  lands.  The 
classical  authors  usually  wrote  with  a  certain  pomp  and 
loftiness.  The  best  modern  writers  aim  at  simplicity, 
directness,  and  clearness  in  style.  They  write  for  the 
people,  in  the  tongue  of  the  people. 

The  most  striking  additions  to  literature  in  the  mod- 
ern age  are  the  novel  and  the  short  story.  Forerunners 
of  the  novel,  to  be  sure,  are  found  in  old  ballads  and 
fables,  but  it  was  the  modern  age  that  brought  to  the 
front  the  long  story  and  the  short  dramatic  tale. 


THE   CULTURE   OF  THE   MODERN  AGE  481 

In  Great  Britain,  Sir  Walter  Scott  made  the  feudal 
age  live  again  in  his  novels.  His  Ivanhoe  and  Quentin 
Durward  will  be  read  by  boys  and  girls  as  long  as  there  is 
any  interest  in  medieval  times.  Somewhat  later  Charles 
Dickens  pictured  the  customs  of  England  in  a  score  of 
stories  which  have  few  rivals.  We  can  still  laugh  and  cry 
over  Nicholas  Nickleby  and  Oliver  Twist.  In  her  Silas 
Marner,  George  Eliot  'tells  a  vivid  story  of  English 
country  life  during  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  such  books  we  can  gain  an  insight  into  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  past. 

In  France,  Victor  Hugo  made  equally  wonderful  pic- 
tures of  the  life  of  his  countrymen.  His  Les  Miserable* 
has  all  the  thrill  of  the  melodrama.  At  the  same  time 
it  describes  the  common  life  of  France  at  the  opening  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 

The  novel,  it  will  thus  be  seen,  has  not  been  confined 
merely  to  interesting  tales.  It  has  been  used  for  a 
variety  of  purposes  —  to  portray  the  life  and  spirit  of  a 
time,  to  describe  an  historical  period  and  the  great  char- 
acters in  it,  or  perhaps  to  expose  a  great  wrong.  For 
example,  Charles  Kingsley  in  his  Alton  Locke  aroused 
all  England  by  showing  the  bitter  suffering  that  existed 
among  the  working  classes  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria. 
Being  far  more  widely  read  than  any  other  form  of 
literature,  the  novel  holds  a  high  and  influential  place 
in  the  thought  of  Europe.  It  holds  the  same  place  in 
American  interest.  European  and  American  novelists 
have  greatly  influenced  each  other's  work. 


482 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


Art  and  Architecture.  Modern  painters  do  not  de- 
vote their  talents  mainly  to  Biblical  scenes  or  pictures 
of  saints.  They  take  up  every  imaginable  theme  :  land- 
scapes, animals,  portraits  of  distinguished  and  undis- 
tinguished people,  glimpses  of  cities  from  palaces  to  the 
slums,  cottages  by  the  wayside,  or  ships  swinging  at 
anchor.  They  consider  nothing  too  high  or  too  humble 
for  their  brushes  and  their  skill.  Sculptors  likewise 
represent  simple  subjects.  All  this  variety  stands  in  sharp 
contrast  to  the  limited  range  of  work  done  by  the  Greeks 
and  by  the  painters  and  sculptors  of  the  middle  ages. 

In  buildings  also  there  is  a  far  wider  range  for  the 
artist.  To  the  cathedral  and  the  gild  hall,  he  has  added 
towering  office  buildings,  railway  stations,  city  halls, 
state  capitols,  and  schoolhouses. 

The  architecture  of  homes  has  been  greatly  improved. 


Photo  by  Geo.  F.  Clifton 

AN  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  BUILDING  (Los  ANGELES) 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MODERN  AGE 


483 


The  Greek  architect  who  planned  an  exquisite  temple 
was  content  to  live  in  a  house  that  would  now  be  re- 
garded as  a  hovel.  To-day  the  governments  of  Europe, 
especially  of  England  and  Germany,  are  calling 


on 


Metropolitan  Museum 

A  CORNER  OF  THE  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY  — 
AN  EXHIBIT  FROM  ANCIENT  GREECE 

architects  to  design  homes  for  working  people  and  are 
seeking  to  combine  beauty  with  comfort.  Even  the 
idea  of  planning  entire  cities  from  the  point  of  view  of 
comfort,  health,  and  good  taste  has  been  accepted  in 
Europe,  as  it  has  in  America. 


484        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

So  we  may  say  that  art,  as  well  as  literature,  is  touched 
by  the  democratic  spirit  of  the  age.  Every  great  Euro- 
pean city  has  its  art  galleries  and  museums  open  to  the 
public  where  any  one  can  study  the  best  works  of  all  times. 
Americans  are  constantly  adding  European  and  Oriental 
treasures  to  their  own  galleries. 

THE  UNITY  OF  THE  MODERN  WORLD 

International  Law.  Among  ancient  savages  there 
was  no  limit  to  the  cruelty  that  might  be  practiced  in 
wars  ;  prisoners  might  be  killed  or  enslaved.  In  times 
of  peace  there  was  little  or  no  commercial  intercourse 
among  the  various  tribes.  After  settlement  upon  the 
land  took  place,  trade  among  nations  became  both  nat- 
ural and  common,  but  wars  were  frequent  and  tribal 
hatreds  continued  to  flourish. 

Slowly,  however,  there  was  growing  up  through  the 
centuries  the  belief  that  certain  rules  of  right  and  justice 
ought  to  govern  the  relation  of  nations  to  one  another. 
In  1625  a  celebrated  Dutch  writer,  Hugo  Grotius, 
published  a  great  work  on  war  and  peace  in  which  he 
discussed  this  subject.  His  book  is  regarded  as  the  be- 
ginning of  modern  international  law.  After  the  day  of 
Grotius  all  Western  countries  recognized  that  there  were 
certain  rules  of  conduct  which  they  should  follow  in 
dealing  with  one  another.  These  rules  were  sometimes 
defined  by  express  agreement  among  nations.  They 
were  laid  down  in  books  on  international  law.  They 
were  used  by  judges  who  were  often  called  upon  to 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MODERN  AGE  485 

decide  disputes  involving  the  law  of  nations.  Writers 
on  the  subject  had  before  them  the  ideal  that  all  the  re- 
lations of  nations  with  one  another  might  be  fixed  clearly 
in  law.  Accordingly,  they  argued,  disputes  among  coun- 
tries might  be  settled  in  courts  just  as  are  quarrels  and 
disputes  among  citizens. 

The  Union  of  the  Nations.  Closely  connected  with 
the  growth  of  international  law  was  the  desire  that  the 
nations  should  form  a  union  or  league  among  themselves 
to  keep  perpetual  peace.  In  1610  there  was  published 
a  Grand  Design,  prepared  by  the  Duke  of  Sully,  a  minis- 
ter of  the  French  king.  The  Duke  proposed  to  create 
in  Europe  a  "  Christian  Republic  "  composed  of  the 
fifteen  independent  nations.  Some  seventy  years  later 
William  Penn,  founder  of  the  colony  of  Pennsylvania, 
issued  a  tract  on  that  subject.  He  advocated  creating 
a  European  parliament  with  full  power  to  compel  all 
nations  to  keep  the  peace.  From  that  time  forward  the 
idea  appeared  in  many  forms.  In  1899  and  again  in 
1907  a  peace  conference  was  held  at  The  Hague  in  Hol- 
land on  the  call  of  the  czar  of  Russia.  All  nations  sent 
representatives,  but  only  one  agreement  of  importance 
was  reached.  A  high  court  of  arbitration  was  created. 
Nations  might  submit  their  disputes  to  this  court  if 
they  saw  fit,  but  they  did  not  bind  themselves  to  do  so. 

During  the  World  War,  when  all  mankind  was  sick 
of  bloodshed,  President  Wilson  declared  that  the  war 
must  end  in  the  establishment  of  a  League  of  Nations  to 
keep  peace.  As  we  have  already  seen,  he  succeeded  in 


486 


OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 


creating  the  League,  but  it  was  rejected  by  his  own 
country.  Nevertheless  nearly  all  the  other  nations  of 
the  world  joined  it,  and  the  first  session  of  the  World 
Assembly  was  held  at  Geneva  in  the  autumn  of  1920. 


©  Keystone  View  Co.,  Inc. 


THE  PEACE  PALACE  AT  THE  HAGUE 


The  future  of  the  League  was,  however,  very  uncertain, 
especially  with  the  United  States  on  the  outside. 

Civilization  Is  International.  Whatever  may  be  the 
fate  of  the  League  of  Nations  or  the  outcome  of  confer- 
ences such  as  that  called  by  President  Harding  (p.  464) 
or  a  later  conference  of  European  nations  at  Genoa  to  con- 
sider ways  and  means  to  better  the  condition  of  Europe, 
civilization  in  the  modern  age  is  less  and  less  divided  by 
the  boundaries  between  nations.  All  civilized  countries 
tend  to  become  alike  in  ways  of  living.  Their  people 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MODERN  AGE  487 

wear  similar  clothes  ;  they  have  street  cars,  automobiles, 
and  electric  lights  ;  they  consume  similar  goods  ;  they 
exchange  professors  and  students ;  they  have  the  same 
industries  and  problems.  More  and  more  they  are 
coming  to  have  the  same  ideas  or  standards  of  what  is 
right  and  what  is  wrong. 

Nations  not  only  tend  to  become  alike ;  they  are 
drawn  together  by  a  thousand  ties.  Trade  among  them, 
the  exchange  of  ideas,  the  increase  of  travel,  and  the 
growth  of  international  societies  draw  them  into  a  sort 
of  world  unity.  There  is  not  a  single  important 
interest  of  mankind  that  does  not  concern  all  nations. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  churches  and  mis- 
sions all  over  the  world.  The  Protestant  denominations 
hold  world  congresses.  The  flow  of  scientific  ideas  from 
nation  to  nation  is  constant,  and  the  workers  in  the 
several  fields  hold  frequent  international  conferences. 
The  Red  Cross  and  agencies  for  the  improvement  of  pub- 
lic health  know  no  national  boundaries.  Relief  work 
of  every  kind  goes  on  regardless  of  political  boundaries. 
Every  plan  of  human  betterment,  every  branch  of  knowl- 
edge, has  the  world  for  its  field. 

America  and  the  Future.  In  the  midst  of  this  strik- 
ing unity  of  all  the  world,  there  is  room  for  each  nation 
to  develop  its  own  powers  and  do  its  own  work.  As  the 
Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans  made  their 
gifts  to  humanity,  so  America  has  its  mission  to  fulfill. 

To-day  we  stand  at  the  opening  of  a  new  epoch.  Our 
country  began  as  weak  and  straggling  settlements  on  the 


488        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

Atlantic  coast.  For  a  long  time  it  had  to  depend  on  the 
Old  World  for  nearly  everything  except  the  roughest 
necessities  of  life.  It  looked  to  Europe  for  the  finer 
manufactured  articles  and  for  books,  music,  art,  and 
science.  It  sought  there  the  money  with  which  to  de- 
velop its  natural  resources  and  build  its  factories.  To 
Europe  it  turned  for  immigrants  to  till  its  wide  reaches 
of  vacant  lands.  For  nearly  two  hundred  years  our 
land  was  a  province  of  the  British  empire. 

Now  all  that  has  been  changed.  Our  country  has  be- 
come a  great  and  independent  nation.  It  has  spread 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Its  vacant  lands  have 
been  taken  up.  The  continent  has  been  spanned  by 
railways.  The  wilderness  has  been  cleared  and  turned 
into  farms.  America  has  become  the  first  manufactur- 
ing country  of  the  world.  It  no  longer  tries  to  entice 
more  immigrants  to  its  shores.  On  the  contrary,  Con- 
gress searches  for  ways  to  cut  down  the  number  that 
would  come.  America  has  grown  up.  It  is  of  age. 

The  new  era  before  us,  therefore,  presents  new  tasks. 
One  of  them  is  the  task  of  drawing  the  millions  of 
foreigners  already  here  into  the  main  stream  of  Ameri- 
can life.  A  second  is  to  conserve  and  make  better  use 
of  our  natural  resources.  A  third  is  to  improve  our 
ways  of  living  in  town  and  country.  A  fourth  is  to 
bring  forth  our  best  powers  in  science,  art,  literature, 
and  government  —  to  encourage  and  appreciate  Ameri- 
can talent.  This  does  not  mean  that  we  should  spurn 
our  inheritance  from  the  past  or  refuse  to  learn  from 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MODERN  AGE 


489 


our  neighbors.  It  merely  means  that  we  should  profit 
by  our  splendid  heritage  from  ancient,  medieval,  and 
modern  times.  It  means  that  we  should  keep  for  our 
symbol  that  wonderful  word  Opportunity  —  not  op- 
portunity for  wealth  and  power  alone,  but  opportunity 
for  great  achievements  in  the  realm  of  the  spirit. 
Temples,  palaces,  amphitheaters,  and  even  mighty  cities, 
may,  as  we  have  seen,  crumble  into  dust,  but  the  things 
of  the  human  spirit  are  everlasting. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

I.  I.    What  are  some  of  the  important  differences  between  the 
modern  age  and  ancient  and  medieval  times  ?     Can  you  add  to 
the  list  of  differences  given  in  the  text  (pp.  468-9)  ? 

II.  i.    Of  the  subjects  that  you  are  studying  in  school,  which 
would    you    group   with    the    "natural    sciences"?     Which   with 
"knowledge  of  the  human  race"   (sometimes  called   the   "social 
sciences")?       2.    The  work  of  the  botanists  has  been  very  help- 
ful to  farmers.     Do  you  know  of  any  way  in  which  the  work  of 
the  botanists  has  helped  the  physician  ?     How  has  the  chemist 
aided  the  physician  ?     How  has  the  chemist  helped  the  farmer  ? 
What  occupations  have  probably  been  helped  most  by  the  stu- 
dents of  physics  ?       3.    Of  what  value  is  it  to  know  about  the  habits 
and  customs  of  backward  races  ?       4.    What  problems  do  the  econ- 
omists study  ?     In  what  ways  may  the  results  of  their  study  be 
helpful  to  mankind  ?       5.    Why  has  the  distribution  of  knowledge 
been  so  important  in  making  the  modern  age  different  from  the 
ages  that  went  before  ?     In  what  way  does  the  public  school  help 
in  the  distribution  of  knowledge  ?     In  what  way  do  newspapers 
help  ?     Some  people  believe  that  the  radio  telephone  will  become 
one  of  the  most  important  agencies  in  distributing  knowledge. 


490        OUR  OLD  WORLD  BACKGROUND 

Can  you  think  of  any  advantages  that  the  radio  telephone  may 
have  over  newspapers  and  books  for  this  purpose  ? 

III.  i.    In  ancient  and  medieval  times  the  life  of  each  genera- 
tion was  much  like  the  life  of  the  generations  that  preceded  it  and 
followed  it.     Find  out  from  talking  with  your  fathers  and  mothers 
how  your  life  to-day  differs  from  the  way  in  which  they  lived  as 
children.     Most  of  you  have  grandparents  still  living.     Find  out 
how  their  childhood  differed  from  your  childhood  and  from  that 
of  your  parents.     Perhaps  they  can  tell  you  something  of  their 
parents  and  the  way  in  which  they  lived  as  children.     Thus  you 
will  be  able  to  learn  something  of  the  changes  that  have  been 
brought  about  in  three  or  four  generations.       2.    What  societies  or 
organizations  in  your  neighborhood  are  working  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  conditions  under  which  people  live  and  work  to-day  ? 

3.  Find  out  what  changes  or  improvements  are  being  sought  by 
the  political  party  of  which  your  father  or  mother  is  a  member. 

4.  What  are  the  churches  in  your  town  or  city  working  for  in  the 
way  of  town  or  city  improvement  ?       5.    In  some  schools,  the  boys 
and  girls  form  clubs  to  help  in  the  improvement  of  the  school  and 
the  care  of  the  school  grounds,  or  to  help  keep  the  streets  free  from 
rubbish   and   the  yards   and  gardens  of  their  homes   attractive. 
In  many  of  the  country  schools,  the  boys  and  girls  have  "  corn  clubs  " 
and  "poultry  clubs"  and  try  in  their  gardens  and  poultry  yards  at 
home  to  raise  better  crops  and  better  chickens.     In  what  ways  are 
the  children  of  your  school  working  for  progress  and  improvement  ? 

IV.  I.    What  are  some  of  the  important  differences  between 
the  literature  of  the  ancient  world  and  that  of  the  modern  world  ? 
2.    Why  is  the  novel  "more  widely  read  than  any  other  form  of 
literature"  ?       3.    By  comparing  in  your   own  neighborhood  old 
houses  with  modern  houses  make  a  list  of  the  important  improve- 
ments that  modern  methods  of  planning  and  building  have  made 
possible.     Ask  your  parents   and   grandparents   to   describe   the 
schoolhouses  of  their  childhood.     Compare  these  with  the  modern 
schoolhouses  that  you  know, 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MODERN  AGE  491  - 

V.  i.  With  what  kind  of  problems  is  international  law  con- 
cerned ?  2.  A  person  who  breaks  a  state  law  or  a  national  law 
can  be  arrested  and,  if  convicted  after  trial,  he  can  be  punished. 
What  can  be  done  with  a  nation  that  breaks  an  international 
law?  3.  What  forces  are  gradually  bringing  the  nations  of  the 
world  together  ?  4.  How  can  our  country  help  to  keep  the  world 
from  another  great  war  ? 

VL  Some  people  believe  that,  in  spite  of  all  that  has  hap- 
pened during  the  long  centuries  of  history,  mankind  is  really  no 
better  off  than  he  was  in  ancient  times.  Do  you  agree  with  this  ? 
If  not,  what  reasons  would  you  give  to  prove  that  mankind  after 
all  has  made  progress  and  that  life  is  better  to-day  than  it  was  in 
the  past  ? 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


KEY   TO   PRONUNCIATION 

(Webster's  International  Dictionary) 

ale,  senate,  care,  am,  account,  arm,  ask,  sofa;  eve,  e"vent,  8nd,  recent, 
maker;  Ice,  111;  old,  obey,  orb,  6dd,  connect;  use,  unite,  urn,  tip,  circus, 
menii ;  food,  foot ;  out,  oil ;  chair ;  go  ;  fcken,  thin ;  nature,  verdure  ;  zh  = 
z  in  azure. 

The  numbers  refer  to  pages.  Where  several  references  are  given,  the  pages 
on  which  the  principal  description  is  to  be  found  are  indicated  by  heavier  type. 


Abyssinia  (ab'1-sln'f-d),  417 

Acadia  (d-ka'dl-d),  279 

Adams,  John  (ad'amz),  307 

Adriatic  Sea  (a'dre-at'Ik),  152,  368, 
436 

Aeschylus  (eVkl-lus),  89 

Aesop  (e'sop),  4 

Africa  (af'rl-kd),  11 ;  early  map  of. 
200;  first  voyages  around,  205; 
European  occupation  of,  413-417 

Alaric  (al'd-rlk),  115,  137 

Alaska  (d-las'kd),  17 

Alexander  the  Great  (al'Sg-zanMer), 
47,  187-188 

Alfred  the  Great  (al'frgd),  145,  172- 
174,  180,  232 

Algiers  (al-jerz'),  416 

Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  (al'ye'n),  308 

Alsace-Lorraine  (al-sas'-lo-ran'),  351, 
361,  436 

America  (d-meVl-kd),  naming  of, 
206 ;  meaning  of  English  revolu- 
tions to,  255-256  ;  and  Napoleonic 
wars,  314,  316 ;  emigration  to,  344, 


348-349,  374-375;  and  the  fu- 
ture, 487-489.  See  also  United 
States 

Anatolia  (an'd-to'll-d),  13 

Angelo,    Michael    (an'je"-lo,    ml'ke"l), 
141 

Angles  (an'gl'z),  115,  171 

Anglo-Saxon    Chronicle    (an'glo-sak'- 
swn),  143 

Anne,  Queen  of  England  (an),  255 

Aphrodite  (af'ro-di'tl),  96 

Apollo  (d-p61'o),  96 

Aquinas,    St.    Thomas    (d-kwi'nds), 
132 

Arabia  (d-ra'bl-d),  52 

Arabs  (ar'abz),  12,  169 

Aragon  (ar'd-g6n),  170 

Ares  (a'res),  96 

Argos  (ar'gSs),  48 

Aristotle    (ar'is-t6t"l),    61,    89,    90, 
93,  95,  98,  146,  201,  448 

Arizona  (ar'I-zo'nd),  208 

Arkwright,  Richard  (ark'rlt),  332 

Aries  (arlz),  66 
493 


494 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Armada,  Spanish  (ar-ma'dd),  266 

Arungzebe  (6'rtmg-zeV),  270 

Asia  (a'shd),  11,  198 

Asia  Minor  (a'shd  ml'ner),  43 

Athena  (d-the'nd),  96 

Athens  (ath'enz),  48,  49,  50,  58,  64, 

65,  85;    social  classes  in,  57,  60- 

61 ;  temple  in,  80 ;  education  in,  93 
Atlantic  Ocean  (at-lan'tlk),  324 
Attica  (at'i-kd),  50 
Augsburg    Confession    (ouks'boorK), 

219 

Augustine  (6'gws-tm),  127 
Augustus  (6-gus'tws),  54,  100 
Australia    (6s-tra'll-d),    11,    37,    344, 

463 
Austria  (6s'tri-d),  278,  280,  296,  302, 

317,  344,  359,  361,  363,  364,  365, 

366,  371 
Austria- Hungary  (6s'trf-d-hun'gd-rl) , 

372-373  ;    democracy  in,  392-393  ; 

in  World  War,  429-439;    collapse 

of,  450-452 
Azores  (d-zorz'),  205 

Baal,  Temple  of  (ba'al),  79 
Babylon    (bab'I-l6n),    43-44,    64-66, 

75,  79 

Babylonia  (bab'I-lo'nl-d),  42-47,  86 
Bacon,  Roger  (ba'k'n),  201 
Bagdad  (bag-dad'),  194,  346 
Bahama  Islands  (bd-ha'md),  426 
Balkan   States    (bal-kan'),    368-372, 

393,  453,  455 

Baltic  Sea  (bdl'tlk),  373,  450 
Baptists  (bap'tlsts),  224 
Bastille  (bas-tel'),  300,  301,  302 
Bavaria  (bd-va'rl-d),  359 
Belgium  (beTjI-to),  20,  430-431 
Belgrade  (bel'grad') ,  369 
Benedict,  St.  (ben'S-dlkt),  131 


Beowulf  (ba'o-wiilf),  88 
Berlin  (bur'lm'),  2,  317 
Berlin-Bagdad  railway  (bur'lm'-bag- 

dad'),  346 

Bible  (bi'b'l),  89,  231-234 
Bill  of  Rights,  English,  253-254 
Birmingham,     Eng.     (bur'mmg-am), 

327 
Bismarck,  Otto  von  (bls'mark,  6t'to 

f6n),  361 

Blackburn,  Eng.  (blak'bwrn),  332 
Black  Sea,  194,  196,  197 
Boers  (boorz),  416 
Bohemia  (bo-he'ml-d),  215 
Bojador,  Cape  (b6j'a-dor'),  205 
Boleyn,  Anne  (bdol'In,  an),  220 
Bolivar,  Simon  (bo-le'var),  419 
Bolivia  (bo-hVl-d),  13 
Bolsheviki  (b6l'sh6-ve'ke),  433,  446- 

450 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon  (bo'nd-part, 
nd-po'le-un),  284-285.  See  Na- 
poleon I 

Bosnia  (b6z'nl-d),  429 
Bosporus  (b6s'po-rws),  455 
Boulogne  (boo'lon'y'),  13 
Boulton,  Matthew  (bol'tun),  327,  329 
Bourbons,  French  (boor'biinz),  291, 

316,  380;   Spanish,  363 
Braddock,  General  (brad'wk),  275 
Brazil  (bra-zll'),  264,  266,  418,  432 
Bristol,  Eng.  (brfs'twl),  151,  243  . 
Britain  (brlf'n),  52,  171-172;    con- 
version of,  to  Christianity,  127-128 
Bronze  Age  (br5nz),  28-30 
Buenos  Aires  (bwa'nos  I'ras),  424 
Bulgaria  (bdol-ga'rl-d),  370,  393 
Bunyan,  John  (bun'ydn),  4,  224 
Burke,  Edmund  (burk),  308 
Bushmen  (bdosh'men),  37 
Byron,  Lord  (bl'rftn),  369 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


495 


Cabot,  John  (kab'wt),  4-5,  206,  264 
Cabot,  Sebastian   (se--bas'chtfn),  206 
Caesar,   Julius    (se'zdr,   jool'yws),   8, 

52,  54,  63,  91,  149;   Commentaries 

of,  91,  92 

Cairo,  Egypt  (ki'ro),  346 
Calvin,  John  (kal'vm),  225 
Canada  (kftn'd-d/d),  11,  273,  275 
Canterbury  Tales  (kan'ter-ber-I),  181- 

182 

Canute  (kd-nuf),  174 
Capet,  Hugh  (ka'pSt,  hu),  167 
Cape-to-Cairo  railway,  346 
Cape  Town  (kap  toun),  346 
Carolingians    (ka'ro-lm'jl-dnz),    163- 

167 
Caribbean  region  (kar'I-be'an),  417, 

426-426 

Carthage  (kar'thaj),  52,  60,  64 
Cartier,  Jacques  (kar'tya',  zhak),  206- 

207 

Cartwright,  Edmund  (kart'rit),  334 
Castile  (kas-teT),  170 
Catacombs  (kat'd-komz),  104 
Cathay  (kd-tha'),  197,  198 
Cato  (ka'to),  59 

Caucasus  Mountains  (ko'kd-sus),  450 
Cavaliers  (kav'd-lerz'),  255 
Cavour,  Count  (ka'Vdor'),  364-366 
Caxton,  William  (kaks'twn),  182 
Central  America,  11,  417-426 
Central  Park,  1 
Ceylon  (s6-16n'),  286 
Champs  de  Mars   (shaN'  de"  mar'), 

302 
Charlemagne  (shar'13-man),  164-167, 

170 
Charles  I  of  England  (charlz),  244, 

245-249 

Charles  II  of  England,  250,  252-253 
Charles  X  of  France,  380 


Charles,  ex-Emperor  of  Austria,  452 
Chaucer,    Geoffrey    (cho'ser,    jgf'rl), 

181-182 
China  (chl'nd),  11-12,  19,  86-87,  151, 

188,  197-198,  208,  351,   408-411; 

growth  of  democracy  in,  401-402; 

and    Japan    contrasted,    411-413; 

policy    of    United    States    toward, 

412-413;    after  World  War,   462, 

463,  465 
Cicero  (sls'er-o),  6,  8,  61,  90,  92,  149, 

154 
Clemenceau,    Georges    (kle'maN'so', 

zh6rj),  436 

Cleopatra  (kle'6-pa'trd) ,  52 
Clermont  (kler'mSnt),  329 
Cleveland,  Grover  (klev'ldnd),  423 
Clive,  Robert  (kliv),  272,  280 
Clovis  (klo'vls),  126,  163 
Cologne  (k6-lon'),  151 
Colosseum,  Rome  (k6ro-se'&m),  65, 

81,  91,  103 
Columbus,  Christopher  (ko-ltim'bus, 

kris't6-fer),  10,  31,  106,  137,  152, 

171,  200,  205,  206,  470 
Congo  River  (k6n'go),  417 
Congregationalists   (kon  'gre"-ga'shtin- 

al-Ists),  223 
Constantino  (k5n'stan-ten),  Arch  of, 

55 

Constantine,  Emperor,  104 
Constantinople     (kSn-stan'tt-no'p'l), 

116,  141,  147,  192,  194,  196,  368, 

454,  455 

Copernicus  (k6-pur'nl-kus),  470-471 
Corinth  (kSr'mth),  48 
Cortez  (kor'tez),  Ferdinand,  207-208 
Coster  (kSs'ter),  149 
Crimea  (krl-me'd),  427 
Cromwell,    Oliver    (krSm'wel),    242, 

247-250,  311 


496 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Crusades  (kroo-sadz'),  192 
Crusoe,  Robinson  (kroo'so),  32 
Cuba  (ku'bd),  17,  266,  425 
Cugnot  (ku'nyo'),  329 
Curie,  Madame  (kii're7),  472 
Czechoslovakia     (chS  K'6-slo-vak'I-d) , 

451 
Czechs  (chgKz),  356 

Damascus  (dd-mas'kws) ,  102 
Dante  (dan'teO,  142,  144 
Danton  (dax'toN'),  305 
Danube  River  (dan'ub),  47,  368 
Darwin,  Charles  (dar'wnr),  477 
Davis,  Jefferson  (da/ vis,  j8f  er-swn),  19 
Declaration  of  Independence,  256-257 
Defoe,  Daniel  (d6-fo'),  4 
Delaware  (deTd-war),  5 
Demeter  (de"-me'ter) ,  96 
Demosthenes    (de"-m6s'the'-nez),    89, 

90-91 
Denmark  (den'mark),  219,  344,  361, 

426 

De  Soto  (d6  so'to),  208 
Diaz,     Bartholomew     (de'ash,     bar- 

th6l'6-mu),  205 

Dickens,  Charles  (dlk'gnz),  8,  481 
Discus  Thrower  (dfe'ktis),  83,  84 
Disraeli,  Benjamin  (dlz-ra'li,  bSn'jd- 

mln),  385 

Domesday  Book  (domz'da'),  180 
Douay  Bible  (dod'a'),  233 
Drake,  Sir  Francis  (drak),  265-266 
Duma  (doo'ma),  396 
Dupleix,  Marquis  (dii'pleks'),  270 
Duquesne,  Fort  (doo-kan'),  282 
Dutch    (dtich),    264;     war    between 

English  and,  266-268 

East   India   Company    (est   In'dl-d), 
269,  273 


East  Indies  (m'dlz),  268 

Edward  VI  of  England  (fid'werd), 
221 

Egbert,  King  (eg'bert),  172 

Egypt  (e'jipt),  42-47,  52,  57,  86, 
310,  347,  348,  416 

Elba  (6l'bd),  314 

Eliot,  George  (eTl-wt),  481 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England  (£- 
hVd-beth),  222-223 

Endicott,  John  (eVdI-k<5t),  242 

England  (mg'gland),  7,  13,  18,  20; 
making  of  nation  of,  171-182;  the 
Protestant  Reformation  in,  220- 
227;  political  revolution  in,  238- 
258;  commercial  leadership  of, 
264-268 ;  conflict  between  France 
and,  268,  268-273;  triumph  of, 
in  Canada,  273-275;  and  Euro- 
pean balance  of  power,  276,  278; 
wars  of,  in  17th  and  18th  centuries, 
278-286;  industrial  leadership  of, 
341;  democracy  in,  382-386; 
and  World  War,  428,  431^39; 
and  Irish  Revolt,  455-457 

Erasmus  (6-raz'mws),  216,  232 

Eskimos  (eVkl-mos),  12 

Esthonia  (6s-tho'n!-d),  450 

Ethelbert  (Sth'gl-burt),  127-128 

Euphrates  River  (u-fra'tez),  43,  64, 
72,  73 

Euripides  (u-rlp'I-dez),  89 

Europe  (u'r#p),  trade  of,  12-13; 
American  influence  on,  14,  16; 
at  present  time,  444-462 

Faust,'  Johann  (foust,  yo'han),  149 

Federalists,  306 

Ferdinand    of    Spain    (fur'dl-nand), 

170,  171 
Finland  (fm'ldnd),  450 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


497 


Florence    (fldr'ens),    139,    147,    152, 

193 

Florida  (fl6r'I-dd),  208 
Foch,  General  (f6sh),  434 
Fontainebleau  (foN'tgn'blo'),  291 
Forum,  Roman  (fo'rum),  65,  92 
Fox,  George  (f6ks),  227 
France  (frans),  18,  19,  20,  27,  284- 
286;    feudalism  in,  120-125;    rise 
and  growth  of,   163-169;    Protes- 
tant revolt  in,   227-228;    conflict 
between    England    and,    in    17th 
century,    268-275 ;     combinations 
of  nations  against,  in  17th  and  18th 
centuries,      278-282 ;      Napoleonic 
wars  in,  310-317 ;    democracy  in, 
380-382;     and   World   War,    428, 
430-439 

Francis  Joseph  (fran'sls  jo'zgf),  Em- 
peror, 393 

Francis  of  Assisi,  St.  (as-se'ze),  131 
Franco-Prussian  War,  361,  382,  427 
Franklin,  Benjamin  (frank'lm),  1,284 
Franks  (franks),  115 
Frederick  the  Great  (frgd'er-Ik),  280 
French  and  Indian  War,  275 
French  Revolution,  14,  284,  290-317 
Fulton,  Robert  (fool'twn),  329 

Galen  (ga'l&i),  62-63 

Galilee  (gal'I-le),  106 

Galileo  (gal'I-le'o),  470 

Gama,  Vasco  da  (ga'ma,  vas'ko  da), 

205 

Ganges  River  (gan'jez),  200,  273 
Garibaldi,  Joseph  (gar'I-bol'dl),  365, 

366,  375 

Gaul  (gol),  52,  66,  126,  163 
Geneva  (jg-ne'vd),  438,  483 
Genoa  (je"n'6-d),  152,  193;  conference 

of  European  nations  at,  482 


George  I  of  England  (jorj),  255 

George  II  of  England,  255-256 

George  III  of  England,  19,  256,  284, 
303,  384,  386 

Georgia  (jor'jl-d),  450 

Germans,  invasions  of  Rome  by, 
115-116 

Germany  (jur'md-nl),  19,  317,  343, 
344,  350,  351 ;  Hanseatic  League 
in,  151 ;  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion in,  214-220;  unification  of, 
359-363  ;  democracy  in,  389-392  ; 
in  World  War,  427-439;  revolu- 
tion of  1918,  444-446 

Gettysburg  Address  (geVIz-burg),  6, 
234 

Gibraltar,  Strait  of  (j!-br6l'ter),  193, 
202  ;  fortress  of,  279 

Giotto  (jot'to),  141 

Gladstone,  W.  E.  (glad'ston),  385 

Glasgow,  University  of  (glas'go),  327 

Goethe  (gu'te"),  480 

Good  Hope,  Cape  of,  205,  208,  268, 
413,  416  ;  taken  by  England,  285 

Gothic  architecture  (gdth'Ik),  139 

Goths  (g6ths),  115,  169 

Granada  (grd-na'dd),  171 

Grand  Design,  485 

Grand  Monarch,  273 

Great  Britain  (brlf'n),  455-457.  See 
England 

Great  Lakes,  273 

Greece  (gres),  47-50,  52,  57,  73,  88, 
369-371,  393,  455 ;  art  of  ancient, 
82-84 ;  literature  of,  89-93 ;  educa- 
tion in,  92-94 ;  religion  of,  95-100 

Grotius,  Hugo  (gro'sM-us,  hu'go), 
484 

Guam  (gwam),  17 

Guiana  (g6-a'nd),  418 

Gutenberg,  John  (g<x>'t£n-be'rK),  149 


498 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Hague,  The  (hag),  19,  485,  486 
Haiti  (ha'tl),  17,  425-426 
Hamburg  (ham'burg),  13,  151 
Hamilton,  Alexander  (ham'Il-twn),  7, 

306 

Hampden,  John  (ham'den),  242,  246 
Hanseatic  League  (han'se-at'Ik  leg', 

151 
Hapsburg  family  (haps'boorK) ,  291, 

372,  392-393,  451 

Harding,  Warren  G.   (har'dmg),  20, 

439,  464,  486 

Hargreaves,  James  (har'grevz),  332 
Harold  II  of  England  (har'&ld),  175 
Harvey,  William  (har'vl),  471 
Hastings,  battle  of  (has'tmgz),  175 
Hawaiian  Islands  (ha-wl'yan  I'landz), 

17 
Henry,    Prince    ("the    Navigator") 

(h&i'ri),  204-205 
Henry    VIII    of   England,  220-221, 

230 

Herodotus  (h6-r6d'6-t#s),  89,  188 
Hiawatha  (hl'd-wo'thd),  88 
Hohenzollern  family  (ho'en-tsol'ern), 

276,  291,  373,  389,  390,  392 
Holland  (h6l'<Xnd),  19,  291 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  166,  317 
Homer  (ho'mer),  88,  89,  90 
Hongkong  (h6ng'k6ng'),  13,  411 
Horace  (hfcr'as),  90 
Horn,  Cape  (h6rn),  208 
Hudson  River  (hud'sftn),  329 
Hudson's  Bay,  279 
Hughes,  Charles  S.  (huz),  464 
Hugo,  Victor  (hu'go),  481 
Huguenots  (hu'ge-n6ts),  227-228 
Hungary  (hung'gd-ri),  343,  344,  372- 

373,  392-393,  450-452 
Huss,  John  (hus),  215 

Huxley,  Thomas  H.  (huks'll),  477 


Iliad  (n'I-<Xd),  89 

India  (m'dl-d),  151,  187-188,  193, 
196,  200,  205,  208,  280;  in  17th 
century,  268-270;  English  con- 
quest of,  270,  272-273 

Indian  Ocean,  200 

Indians,  North  American,  21,  27,  31 

Ireland  (Ir'land),  343,  344,  455-457 

Irish  Free  State  (I'rlsh),  457 

Iron  Age  (I'#rn),  30-31 

Isabella  I  of  Spain  (Iz'd-bel'd),  106, 
170,  171,  204 

Isis  (i'sls),  75 

Italy  (Ifd-H),  20,  73,  343,  354;  so- 
cial classes  in  ancient,  58-64  ;  trad- 
ing cities  in,  151 ;  leading  medieval 
cities  of,  151-152;  unification  of, 
363-366;  democracy  in,  388-389; 
and  World  War,  431-439 

Jacobins  (jak'6-bmz),  303,  306 
James  I  of  England  (jamz),  233,  239, 

245,  249 

James  II  of  England,  253 
Jamestown,  Va.  (jamz'toun),  10,  20 
Japan  (jd-pan'),   11-12,  86-87,  322, 

396,  408-411;   democracy  in,  396- 

401;    China  and,  contrasted,  411- 

413;    in  World  War,   341;    after 

World  War,  462-463 
Java  (ja'vd),  208,  268 
Jefferson,  Thomas  (jeTer-s#n),  9,  95, 

256-257,  306,  314 
Jehovah  (jg-ho'vd),  99 
Jerome,  St.  (jg-rom'),  115 
Jerusalem  (jg-roo'sd-lgm),  64,  79,  101, 

102 

Jesuits  (jeVu-Its),  131 
Jesus  Christ  (je'zws  krist),  100-101, 

102-103 
Jews  (juz),  8,  101 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


499 


John  of  England  (j6n),  176,  177,  323 
Jupiter  (jod'pl-ter),  96,  100 
Jutes  (jutz),  171 

Kalm,  Peter  (kalm),  14 
Karnak,  Temple  of  (kar'nak),  78 
Katherine    of    Aragon     (kath'er-m) , 

220 

Kay,  John  (ka),  333 
Kew  Gardens  (ku),  34 
Khan,  Great  (Kan),  197 
King  George's  War,  280 
King  James  Version  of  Bible,  233 
Kingsbridge,  London  (kmgz'brlj),  20 
Kingsley,  Charles  (klngz'H),  481 
Knox,  John  (n6ks),  225 
Korea  (ko-re'd),  412 
Kosciusko  (k6s'i-us'ko),  453 
Kossuth,  Louis  (k<5-sooth'),  372,  375 

Lafayette  (la/fa-yeV),  1,  14,  290,  380 

La  Paz  (la  pas),  13 

Latin    America    (lat'm    d-meVI-kd) , 

417-426 

Latvia  (lat'vl-d),  450 
League  of  Nations   (leg),  436,  438- 

439,  485,  486;    refusal  of  United 

States  to  join,  460 
Leeds,  Eng.  (ledz),  384 
Leipzig  (llp'slk),  314 
Lenine  (le-nen'),  448 
Leo  III,  Pope  (le'o),  166 
Leo  XIII,  Pope,  479 
Leon  (la-en7 ),  170 
Libia  (llb'I-d),  417 
Libreville  (lebr'-veT),  13 
Lincoln,  Abraham  (llng'kftn),  3-4,  6, 

19,  234 

Lincoln,  England,  151 
Lisbon  (hVbwn),  204 
Lithuania  (llth'u-a'nl-d),  450 


Liverpool  (hVer-pool),  13 
Livingstone,     David     (llv'mg-st#n), 

413-414 
Lloyd  George,  David  (loid  jorj),  436, 

457,  479 

Locke,  John  (16k),  256 
Lombardy  (iSm'bdr-dl),  363,  365 
London  (Itin'dfln),  2,  20,  34,  66,  151, 

196,  243,  340 
Longfellow,   H.   W.    (I6ng'fel-o),  88, 

142 

Lorraine  (16-ran'),  361 
Los  Angeles,  Calif,  (los  an'j6l-6s),  482 
Louisiana    (loo-e'zfi-an'd),    273,    282, 

316 

Louis    Napoleon    (loo'e').     See    Na- 
poleon III 
Louis  Philippe   (loo'e7  fe'lep'),  380- 

381 
Louis  XIV  of  France,  168,  169,  228, 

273,  278 

Louis  XV  of  France,  280 
Louis  XVI  of  France,  258,  298,  299, 

302,  303,  310,  316 
Louis  XVIII  of  France,  379 
Loyola,   Ignatius   (loi-o'ld,  Ig-na'shl- 

fls),  131 

Lucretius  (lu-kre'sM-fts),  477 
Luther,  Martin    (loo'ther),  217-219, 

229,  233 

Macedonia  (mas'e'-do'nl-d),  47,  370 

Madeira  (md-de'rd),  205 

Madison,  James  (mad'I-siin),  7,  316 

Magellan,  Fernando  (md-jeT#n),  206 

Magenta  (md-jeVtd),  365 

Magna  Carta  (mag'nd  kar'td),  176, 

177-178,  323 
Mainz  (mints),  150 
Manchester,     Eng.      (man'chgs-ter), 

243,  339,  340,  348,  384 


5°° 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Marat,  Jean  Paul  (ma'ra',  zhoN  pol), 

305 

Marconi,  William  (mar-ko'ne),  467 
Marcus  Aurelius  (mar'kws  6-re'lI-ws), 

98-99 
Marie  Antoinette  (ma/re7  aN'twa/n^t') 

303 

Mark,  Apostle  (mark),  101 
Marne,  battles  of  (marn),  432 
Mars  (marz),  96 
"  Marseillaise,"  303,  317 
Marseilles  (mar-salz'),  196,  303,  345 
Marshall,  John  (mar'sMl),  301 
Marsiglio  of  Padua  (mar-sel'yo),  144 
Martineau,  Harriet  (mar'tl-no),  16 
Mary  I  of  England  (rna'rl),  222 
Mary  II  of  England,  253-254 
Maryland  (meVi-ldnd),  227 
Masaryk,  Thomas  (mas'd-rlk),  451 
Massachusetts  Bay   Colony    (mas'd- 

choo'sgts),  223 
Mauro,  Fra  (mo'ro,  fra),  200 
Maximilian  of  Austria   (mak'sl-mil'- 

y<m),  422 

Mayflower  (ma'flou-er) ,  5 
Mazzini,  Joseph  (mat-se'ne),  363-364 
Mediterranean    Sea    (me"d'I-ter-a'ne"- 

an),  8,  43,  49,  61,  187,  193,  194 
Memphis  (mSm'fls),  64 
Mesopotamia  (m6s'6-p6-ta'ml-d),  351 
Metropolitan  Museum,  75 
Mexico  (mek'sl-ko),  11,  207-208,  382, 

417-426 

Mikado  of  Japan  (ml-ka'do),  397,  401 
Milan  (ml-lan'),  138,  152 
Miletus  (mi-le't&s),  48 
Minerva  (ml-nur'vd),  75 
Minorca  (mi-nor'kd),  279 
Mississippi  River  (mls'i-slp'l),  208 
Mogul,  Great  (m6-gul'),  269-270 
Mogul  empire,  269-270 


Mohammed  (mo-ham  '6d),  169,  368 
Mohammedans        (md-ham'e'd-dnz), 

169-170,  191-192 
Monroe,  James  (mwn-ro'),  420 
Monroe  Doctrine,  419-423 
Montenegro     (mtin'te-na'gro),     370, 

431 

Montreal  (mont're'-ol'),  273 
Moors  (moorz),  169-170 
More,  Sir  Thomas  (mor),  230 
Morocco  (mo-rSk'o),  417 
Moscow  (mes'ko),  2 


Nantes,  Edict  of  (nants,  e'dlkt  6v), 

228 

Naples  (na'p'lz),  80 
Napoleon   I    (nd-po'le^n)  ,   20,    284- 

285,  309,  310-314,  358,  378,  379 
Napoleon  III,   361,   365,   366,   381- 

382,  422 

Navajo  Indians  (nav'd-ho),  36 
Navarre  (nd-var'),  170 
Nelson,  Admiral  (neTsiin),  310 
Nero  (ne'ro),  100 
Netherlands,     The     (neWer-landz), 

194,  227,  264 

New  Amsterdam  (am'ster-dam),  267 
Newfoundland  (nu'fwnd-land'),  279 
New  Jersey  (jur'zl),  225 
New  Mexico  (m6k'sl-ko),  208 
New    Netherland    (neWer-land),    5, 

267 

New  Orleans  (or'le-dnz),  273 
New  Rochelle  (r6-sheT),  N.  Y.,  228 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac  (nu'tun,  sur  I'zdk), 

471 

New  York,  colony  (york),  5 
New  York  City,    1,  85-86,  267,  483 
Nicaragua  (nlk'd-rd-ra'gwd),  17 
Nicholas  II  of  Russia  (nlk'6-lds),  394, 

396,  446 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


501 


Nile  River  (nil),  43,  58,  72,  73,  82, 

413 

Nile,  battle  of,  310 
Nimes  (nem),  62 
Nineveh  (nln'e-ve"),  64,  75,  88 
Norman   Conquest    (nor'mdn),    174- 

176 

North  America,  11 
North  German  Confederation,  361 
Norway  (nor'wa),  219,  344 
Notre    Dame,    cathedral    of    (no'tr' 

dam'),  313 

Obrenovitch,    Milosh    (6-bre'no-vich, 

me'lSsh),  369 

Octavianus  (6k-ta'vi-a'n£s),  54 
Odyssey  (6d'i-sl),  89 
Orange,  France  (or'gnj),  66 
Orient  (o'ri-ent),  11-12;    nations  of, 

42-47;    art  and  artists  of,  81-82; 

literature    of,    88-89;     growth    of 

democracy    in,    398-402 ;     Europe 

in,    408-413;     after    World    War, 

462-483 
Orlando,   Vittorio    (or-lan'do,   vit-o'- 

rl-o),  436 

Otto,  King  of  Greece  (6t'o),  370 
Ottoman  Turks  (6t'6-mdn),  368-370 
Oxford,  Eng.  (Sks'ferd),  146 

Pacific  Ocean  (pd-slf'lk),  17,  463 

Paestum  (peVtwm),  50,  80 

Palestine  (pal'Ss-tln),  8,  64,  73,  100, 
187,  191 

Panama,  Isthmus  of  (pan'd-ma'),  17 

Panama  Canal,  426 

Pankhurst,  Emmeline  (pank'hurst), 
403 

Pantheon  (pan-the'6n),  80 

Paris  (par'Is),  19,  20,  66,  314;  medie- 
val center  of  learning,  146 ;  peace 


conference   at,    after   World   War, 

435-439,  453,  459 
Parliament     (par'li-ment),      British, 

178-179,  385,  386 
Parthenon  (par'the-nSn),  49,  97 
Paul,  Apostle  (pol),  101,  102 
Pegolotti  (p6g'6-l6t'tl),  198 
Peking  (pe'king'),  194,  197 
Penn,  William  (p6n),  227,  234,  485 
Pennsylvania    (p6n'sil-va'nl-d) ,    220, 

225,  227,  273,  275,  280,    282,  485 
Pennsylvania,  University  of,  235 
Perry,  Commodore  (per'I),  409,  410 
Pershing,  John  J.  (pur'shmg),  14,  434 
Persia  (pur'shd),  13,  47,  51 
Persian  Gulf,  194,  196 
Peru  (pe-roo'),  208 
Peter,  Apostle  (pe'ter),  105 
Petition  of  Right,  English,  247 
Pharaohs  (fa'roz),  43,  86 
Pharisees  (far'I-sez),  101 
Phidias  (fld'I-as),  84 
Philadelphia  (fil'd-del'fi-d),  7 
Philip  of  Macedon  (ffl'Ip),   90 
Philippine  Islands  (fiH-pin),  17,  266 
Phoenicia  (fg-msh'i-d),  61,  64 
Picts  (plkts),  171 
Piedmont  (ped'mSnt),  363 
Pilate,  Pontius  (pi'ldt,  pSn'shils),  101 
Pilgrims  (pil'grlmz),  323 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  224 
Pisa  (pe'sa),  152 
Pitt  (pit),  William,  275,  282 
Pittsburgh  (pits 'burg),  282 
Pizarro  (pl-zar'ro),  208 
Plassey  (plas'6),  280 
Plato  (pla'to),  90,  93,  94,  448 
Plebeians  (ple-be'ydnz),  59 
Plymouth,  Eng.  (pllm'wth),  243 
Plymouth,  Mass.,  20,  224 
Poland  (po'land),  343,  354,  453 


502 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Polo,  Marco  (po'lo,  mar'ko),  197-198, 

200 

Polo  brothers,  197,  198 
Pondicherry  (p6n'di-sh6r'i),  270 
Porto  Rico  (por'to  re'ko),  17,  425 
Portugal  (por't$-gal) ,  17 1 , 204, 262, 264 
Presbyterians  (pre'z'bl-te'ri-dnz),  225 
Protestant  Reformation,  213-237 
Prussia  (prush'd),  276,  280,  282,  294, 

296,  302,  317,  359,  361,  389-390 
Ptolemy,  Claudius  (tOl'S-ml),  199 
Puritans  (pu'rl-tdnz),  223,  249-250 
Pyrenees  Mountains  (pir'g-nez),  115, 

169 

Quakers  (kwak'erz),  225,  227 
Quebec  (kwfi-bek'),  280,  281 

Red  Sea,  194 

Reign  of  Terror,  304-305 

Republicans  (rg-pub'li-kanz),  306 

Rhine  River  (rln),  278 

Rhode  Island  (rod  I'land),  224 

Robespierre  (ro'bes-pyarO,  305 

Rochelle  (ro-sheT),  228 

Romanesque  architecture  (ro'mdn- 
6sk'),  139 

Romanoff  family  (ro-ma'nof),  276, 
291,  373,  393-396 

Rome  (rom),  2,  61-56,  57,  58,  64,  65, 
85,  366  ;  art  of,  84  ;  literature  of, 
90-91 ;  education  in,  92-94 ;  re- 
ligion of,  95-100;  persecution  of 
Christians  at,  103-104 ;  acceptance 
of  Christianity  at,  104-105;  de- 
cline of,  112-116 

Roosevelt,  Theodore  (roz'e-vSlt),  6, 
423 

Rouen  (rwaN),  150 

Rumania  (rdo-ma'nl-d),  370,  393, 
432,  433,  453 


Runnymede  (run'I-med),  177 
Russia    (rush'd),    12,   276,   296,   343, 
369,    370;     Napoleon's  campaign 
against,  314;    nationalism  in,  373: 
democracy    in,    393-396;     revolu- 
tion of  1917,  446-450 
Russo-Japanese     War     (rus'o-jap'd- 
nez'),  411-412 

Sagres  (sa'grgz),  204,  205 

Sahara  Desert  (sd-ha'rd),  43 

St.  Helena  (sant  hg-le'nd),  314 

St.    Lawrence    River    (sant   16'rens), 

207,  273 
St.  Mark's,  Venice  (sant  marks),  140, 

363 

St.  Peter's,  Rome  (sant  pe'terz),  367 
St.    Petersburg    (sant    pe'terz-burg), 

317 

Saladin  (sal'a-dm),  193 
Samoan  Islands  (sa-mo'dn),  17 
Santo   Domingo    (san'to  do-mm'go), 

17,  426 

Sappho  (saf'o),  89 
Sardinia  (sar-dm'I-d),  363,  364 
Saxons  (sak'sunz),  115,  171 
Saxony  (sak'swn-I),  217,  359 
Scandinavia    (skan'dl-naM-d),    291, 

344 
Schleswig-Holstein       (shlas'vlK-hol'- 

shtin),  361 

Schurz,  Carl  (shoorts,  karl),  360,  375 
Scots  (sk6tz),  171 
Scott,  Sir  Walter  (sk6t),  481 
Semiramis  (sS-mlr'd-mls),  79 
Seneca  (seVe-kd),  91 
Senegal  River  (s6n'e--gol'),  205 
Separatists  (sep'd-ra-tlsts),  224,  249- 

250 

Sepoy  Rebellion  (se'poi),  273 
Sepoys,  270,  272-273 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX  OF  NAMES 


503 


Serbia  (sur'bl-d),  369,  393,  431,  433, 

451 

Seres  (China)  (s6r'6s),  188 
Seven  Years'  War,  272,  275 
Shakespeare,  William  (shak'sper) ,  8, 

9,  234,  480 

Shanghai  (shang'ha'I),  409 
Shantung     Peninsula     (shan'toong'), 

411,  465 
Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe  (shel'I,  pur'si 

bish),  71 

Siberia  (si-be 'rl-d),  398,  450 
Sidon  (sl'dwn),  64 
Silvanus  (sll-va'nus),  96 
Sinn  Fein  (shin  fan),  455,  456 
Sistine  Chapel,  Rome  (sls'ten),  141 
Smith,  John,  14 

Socrates  (s6k'rd-tez),  90,  93,  94,  100 
Solferino  (s6l'fe'-re'n5),  365 
Solomon  (s6l'6-m?m),  79,  187 
Sophocles  (s6f'6-klez),  89,  94 
South  America,  11,  417-426 
Soviets  (so-vI-Stz'),  446,  447 
Spain  (span),  19,  282,  284,  379;   rise 

of,  169-171 ;    leader  in  commerce, 

264 
Spanish  Succession,  War   of    (span'- 

Ish),  279 

Sparta  (spar'td),  48,  93 
Spencer,  Herbert  (spgn'ser),  477 
Stanley,  Henry  M.  (stan'li),  413-414 
Stephenson,     George     (ste'ven-s&n), 

330 

Stone  Ages,  27-28 
Strabo  (stra'bo),  201 
Sudan  (soo'dan'),  417 
Suez  Canal  (soo-eV),  417 
Sully,  Duke  of  (sul'I),  485 
Sumatra  (soo-ma'trd),  208,  268 
Sweden  (swe'den),  20,  219,  344 
Switzerland  (swrt'zer-land),  20,  281 


Tacitus  (tas'I-tus),  91,  149 

Taj  Mahal  (taj  md-hal'),  269 

Terminus  (tur'mi-nus),  97 

Texas  (teVsds),  208 

Thames  River  (tSmz),  268 

Thebes  (thebz),  44,  48,  64 

Thirty  Years'  War,  228 

Tiber  River  (ti'ber),  51 

Tigris  River  (ti'grls),  64 

Tocqueville,    Alexis    de    (t6k'vll,    d- 

Igk'sis  de),  16 

Toscanelli  (tSs'kd-nfill),  200 
Trafalgar  (traf'dl-gar'),  283 
Trevithick,  Richard  (trgv'I-thlk),  33o 
Triple  Alliance,  427 
Trotzky,  Leon  (trSts'kl,  le'wn),  448 
Tunis  (tu'nls),  416 
Turkey  (tur'kl),  368-370,  453,  455; 

and  World  War,  432 
Tyre  (tir),  64 

United  States,  290,  292,  299-300, 
305-308,  314,  316:  policy  toward 
China,  412-413 ;  and  World  War, 
433-434;  after  World  War,  460- 
462;  refusal  of,  to  join  League  of 
Nations,  439,  486.  See  also  Amer- 
ica 

Ute  Indians  (ut),  34 

Utica  (u'ti-kd),  64 

Valera,  Eamonn  de(vd-la'rd,  e'd-rmm), 

455 

Venetia  (ve-ne'shi-d),  363,  365,  366 
Venezuela  (vgn'S-zwe'ld),  423 
Venice  (ven'fe),  139,    140,    147,  151- 

162,  193,  196,  198,  363 
Venus  (ve'n-fts),  96 
Vergil  (ver'jll),  90,  149 
Verona  (ve-ro'nd),  419 
Versailles  (vgr'sa'y'),  293,  294,  361 


504 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Vespucci,  Amerigo  (vgs-poot'che,  a'- 

ma-re'go),  208 
Vesta  (ves'td),  96,  98 
Vesuvius,  Mt.  (ve--su'vl-£s),  342 
Victor  Emmanuel  II  (vik'tor  8-man'- 

u-61),  364-366,  388 
Victor  Emmanuel  III,  388 
Victoria,  Queen  of  England  (vlk-to'- 

ri-d),  273,  385-386,  481 
Vienna  (vg-6n'd),  317 
Virginia  (ver-jin'i-d),  14,  255 
Virginia,  University  of,  9 
Virgin  Islands  (ver'jin),  17,  426 
Voltaire  (vol'tar'),  297 
Vulgate  (vul'gat),  232 

Wales  (walz),  330 

Washington,    D.   C.    (wosh'ing-tim), 
international  conference  of   1921- 
22  at,  20,  484,  483 ;   National  Mu- 
seum at,  34,  35 
Washington,  George,  1,  7,  299,  302, 

307 

Waterloo  (wo'ter-loo'),  285,  314,  379 
Watt,  James  (w6t),  326-327,  328,  329 
Webster,  Daniel  (weVster),  8 
Wei-Hai-Wei  (wa'hi'wa'),  411 
Wellington,  Duke  of  (weTing-tun),  314 


West  Indies  (In'dlz),  17,  266,  285 
William   II   of   Germany    (wil'yam), 

392,   423,   427-428;     downfall  of, 

434,  445 
William  III  of  England   (Prince  of 

Orange),  253-254,  268,  278,  279 
William  the  Conqueror,  174-176,  180 
Williams,  Roger  (wil'yamz),  224 
Wilson,  Woodrow  (wil'swn,  wood'ro), 

19,  354,  426,  434,  435,  436,  451, 

453,  485 

Winchester,  Eng.  (wm'che's-ter),  151 
Windward  Islands  (wind'werd),  426 
Winthrop,  John  (wm'thrftp),  242 
Wittenberg  (wit 'en-burg),  217 
Wolfe,  General  (woolf),  280 
World  War  (wurld  wor),  18-19,  354, 

366,  371-372,  392,  393,  396,  426- 

439 

Wurtemburg  (wiir' tern-burg),  359 
Wyclif,  John  (wik'lif),  215,  232 

York,  Eng.  (york),  151 

Yorktown  (york'toun),  1 

Young  Italy,  364 

Yugoslavia  (yu'go-sla'vl-d),  451,  453 

Zeus  (zus),  96,  100 


50490.3 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


